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RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN  EDUCATION 

EDITED  BY  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF    EDUCATION 
LBLANO  STANFORD  JUNIOR   UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER  INGLIS 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION 
HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


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EXPERIMENTAL 
EDUCATION 

Laboratory  Manual  and  Typical  Retulto 


BY 

FRANK  N.  FREEMAN,  Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR  OF   EDUCATIONAL   PSYCHOLOGY 

THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

AUTHOR   OF  "THE  TEACHING  OF   HANDWRITING"  AND 

"THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  COMMON   BRANCHES" 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW   YORK  CHICAGO 


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COFYRIOHT,  I916,   BY  PRANK  N.   FRSEMAN 
ALL  RIGHTS  RKSSRVSD 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U   .  S  .   A 


Library 

LB 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  experimental  investigation  of  educational  pro- 
blems had  its  origin,  in  large  measure,  among  the 
workers  in  psychological  laboratories.    The  subject- 
matter  of  the  problems  is  chiefly  psychological  in  na- 
ture.   Many  of  the  methods  which  have  been  devel- 
oped in  the  psychological  laboratories  are  applicable 
fi   to  the  study  of  the  problems  of  education,  and  some 
»^    of  the  problems  in  psychology,  particularly  those  of 
-^   learning  and  memory,  have  direct  bearing  upon  edu- 
cation. 
^      During  recent  years  experimental  education  has  ex- 
^  perienced  a  very  rapid  growth,  and  there  have  been 
extensive  developments  in  certain  specialized  direc- 
ft  tions.   The  fields  in  which  this  work  has  been  largely 
'^  done  are  the  investigation  of  the  learning  process  which 
^  characterizes  progress  in  the  subjects  of  study  in  school, 
the  accurate  measiu*ement  of  attainment  in  these 
school  subjects,  and  the  determination  of  individual 
ability  through  tests  of  mental  maturity,  intelligence, 
and  individual  differences.  These  problems,  while  of 
the  same  general  nature  as  those  studied  in  the  psy- 
chological laboratories,  are  in  the  main  untouched  in 
the  work  of  these  laboratories  and  in  the  manuals 
which  have  been  prepared  for  the  guidance  of  their 


vi  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

work.  Under  these  conditions  the  formulation  of 
courses  of  experiments  for  students  in  education, 
which  shall  meet  the  special  demands  of  this  particular 
field  of  investigation,  is  highly  desirable,  since  the 
organization  of  manuals  to  serve  as  guides  in  such 
courses  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  research  which  has 
been  carried  on.  This  is  the  natural  result  of  the  new- 
ness of  the  field,  of  its  lack  of  organization,  and  of  the 
variable  quality  of  the  work  which  has  been  done  in  it. 
The  present  volume  of  this  series  of  textbooks  is  an 
attempt,  by  a  psychologist  who  has  been  engaged  in 
much  of  this  newer  type  of  educational  investigation, 
to  make  a  workable  organization  of  this  new  field  in 
applied  psychology,  to  sift  the  valuable  phases  of  the 
work  from  those  which  are  ephemeral,  and  to  formu- 
late a  series  of  experiments  which  shall  introduce  the 
student  to  the  more  important  problems  of  experi- 
mental education.  As  such  it  is  hoped  that  it  may 
prove  of  much  use  to  students  of  such  problems  as  are 
here  included. 

Ellwood  p.  Cubbeblet 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.  Introduction .      l 

CHAPTER  n.  Analysis  of  Various  Types  of  the 
Learning  Process 

Experiment  No.    1.  Sensori-Motor  Learning    ....  IS 

Experiment  No.    2.  Perceptual  Learning 25 

Experiment  No.    8.  Learning     of     the     Problem-Solving 

Type 32 

A.  Puzzle-Box  Experiment 84 

B.  The  Tait  Labyrinth  Puzzle 86 

Experiment  No.    4.  Transfer  of  Training  in  Sensori-Motor 

Learning 41 

Experiment  No.    5.  The  Factors  in  Memory  as  revealed  in 

Rote  Memorizing 51 

Experiment  No.    6.  Memory  for  Sense  Material    ...  64 

CHAPTER  HI.  Experiments  with  School  Subjects 

Experiment  No.    7.  Experimental  Psychological  Analysis  of 

Handwriting 72 

Experiment  No.    8.  A  Test  of  Handwriting     ....     82 
Experiment  No.    9.  Observation    of    Eye  Movements    in 

Reading 95 

Experiment  No.  10.  Study  of  the  Perceptual  Process  in 

Reading  by  the  Tachistoscopic  Method  .  .  .  .110 
Experiment  No.  11.  Efficiency  of  Reading  .  .  .  .117 
Experiment  No.  12.  Apprehension  of  Number        .      .      .   182 

CHAPTER  IV.  Tests 
Experiment  No.  18.  Tests  of  Visual  Defects     ....   141 
Experiment  No.  14.  Tests  of  Auditory  Acuity        .      .      .   152 


vui  CONTENTS 

Experiment  No.  15.  Testa  of  Maturity  of  a  Mental  Func- 
tion      162 

A.  Immediate  Memory  for  Numbers      ....  162 

B.  Reconstruction  of  Sentences 164 

Experiment  No.  16.  Correlation  between  Tests       .      .      .  170 

APPENDIX.  Figures  and  Tests  fob  Use  with  the 
Experiments 

Six  Figures  for  Use  with  Experiment  2 189 

Tait  Unicursal  Labyrinth,  Experiment  3,  B      .      .      .      .  191 

Series  of  Syllables  for  Experiment  5 192 

Poem  to  be  used  in  Experiment  6         193 

Texts  for  Use  with  Experiment  9 198 

Figures  and  Words  for  Use  in  Experiment  10    ...      .  208 

Material  for  Use  with  Experiment  12 209 

Material  for  Use  with  Experiment  15,  B 213 

Key  to  Sentence  Arrangement  in  Experiment  15         .      .  215 

Stimuli  for  Use  with  Experiment  16 216 

Response  List  for  Experiment  16 217 

INDEX 219 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  1.  Apparatus  used  in  Experiment  No.  1  .      .14 

Fig.  2.  Arrangement  op  Cards  used  in  Experi- 
ment No.  1 16 

Fig.  3.  Diagram  op  Puzzle  Box 35 

Fig.  4.  Tracer  Record  from  a  Writer  who  uses 
Little  (A)  and  Much  (B)  Arm  Move- 
ment        76 

Fig.  5.  Tracer  Record  from  a  Writer  who  uses  a 

Medium  Amount  of  Arm  Movement     .    77 

Fig.  6.  Mirror  for  Observing  Eye  Movements     .    95 

Fig.  7.  Diagram  of  the  Connections  for  the  Tap- 
ping Apparatus 17S 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Within  the  past  ten  years  there  has  been  very 
marked  activity  in  the  scientific  study  of  the  psycho- 
logical problems  involved  in  education.  This  activity 
is  evidenced  by  the  large  nimiber  of  papers  reporting 
experimental  studies,  read  before  meetings  of  edu- 
cational and  psychological  associations,  and  by  the 
stream  of  articles  dealing  with  experimental  education 
appearing  in  educational  and  psychological  p)eriodical3. 
This  investigation  of  educational  problems  by  the 
general  methods  developed  in  the  psychological  lab- 
oratory was  instituted  and  promoted  in  the  first  place 
by  professional  psychologists,  and  originally  dealt  with 
problems  of  general  psychological  analysis.  In  the 
course  of  its  development,  however,  both  the  aim  and 
the  content  of  this  study  have  shifted,  and  it  has  be- 
come necessary  to  reformulate  them  in  order  to  meet 
the  demands  of  students  who  are  interested  in  the 
psychological  aspects  of  education. 

The  earlier  applications  of  psychology  to  education 
dealt  primarily  with  the  development  of  general  psy- 
chological principles,  and  secondarily  with  their  appli- 
cation. The  first  consequence  of  this  emphasis  on  the 


S  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

theoretical  side  was  that,  since  there  were  no  clear 
standards  as  to  what  was  of  most  importance  from  the 
practical  point  of  view,  much  time  was  spent  on  the 
elaboration  of  principles  which  were  relatively  miim- 
portant  for  education.  The  second  consequence  was 
that,  since  the  basis  of  classification  was  the  psycho- 
logical system,  the  facts  or  principles  which  applied  to 
any  particular  problem,  such  as  reading  or  writing, 
were  scattered  through  various  parts  of  a  course  in- 
stead of  being  focused  on  the  practical  problem  itself. 

The  course  which  is  here  presented  accordingly  pro- 
ceeds, for  the  most  part,  from  the  opposite  starting- 
point.  Instead  of  developing  the  general  psychological 
principles  and  laws,  and  then  making  incidental  appli- 
cation, it  attacks  directly  the  practical  problems  and 
attempts  to  throw  light  upon  them  by  an  analysis  of 
the  psychological  principles  which  are  involved  in 
them.  This  means  that  the  selection  of  problems  is 
based  directly  on  their  practical  importance,  and  that 
the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  bring  together  the  facts 
which  serve  to  illuminate  some  one  practical  problem. 

An  exception  to  this  general  rule  that  the  experi- 
ments deal  with  specific  educational  problems  rather 
than  with  general  psychological  principles,  appears  in 
the  early  experiments,  which  deal  with  learning  and 
memorizing.  This  exception  is  justified  by  the  very 
wide  and  evident  application  which  these  principles 
have  in  education.  The  purpose  of  the  experiments  in 
this  first  section  is  to  cause  the  student  to  make  an 


INTRODUCTION  8 

analysis  of  his  own  learning  process,  and  to  compare 
his  learning  process  with  that  of  others,  to  the  end  that 
he  may  know  what  the  conditions  of  efficient  learning 
are,  and  how  the  learning  of  others  may  be  most  eflfec- 
tively  directed.  For  this  reason  the  conditions  of 
learning  are  experimentally  varied  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  effect  of  different  conditions  may  be  compared. 
A  variety  of  typical  forms  of  learning  are  employed, 
including  rote  and  sense  memorizing. 

In  the  next  group  of  experiments  the  student  is  led 
to  examine  forms  of  learning  which  are  represented  in 
the  fundamental  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum. 
We  are  here  dealing  with  special  problems  which  have 
a  still  more  direct  application  to  school  procedure  than 
does  the  analysis  of  the  learning  process  in  general. 
Besides  the  analysis  of  the  mental  process  involved  in 
the  learning  of  the  school  subjects,  it  is  of  great  value 
to  the  administration  of  education  to  be  able  to  meas- 
ure the  attainment  of  pupils  in  the  various  branches 
by  means  of  tests  which  render  the  results  comparable 
to  general  standards.  Accordingly,  two  examples  of 
such  test  methods  are  included  in  the  experiments  on 
the  school  subjects. 

Finally,  for  the  proper  direction  of  the  pupil's  learn- 
ing process,  it  is  necessary  that  we  shall  have  informa- 
tion regarding  his  intellectual  equipment  for  the  tasks 
which  are  required  of  him.  The  detection  of  defects  in 
the  avenues  by  which  experience  is  acquired  necessi- 
tates the  discovery  and  correction  of,  or  allowance  for, 


4  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

sensory  defects.  A  general  knowledge  of  the  methods 
of  testing  for  sensory  defects  is  desirable.  The  methods 
of  testing  other  types  of  ability  can  be  illustrated  only 
roughly,  and  the  qualification  must  always  be  kept  in 
mind  that  the  results  with  adults  cannot  be  applied 
directly  to  children.  Various  test  methods  can  be  illus- 
trated, however,  so  as  to  give  an  acquaintance  with  the 
types  of  tests  which  give  an  insight  into  important 
individual  and  age  variations.  Opportimity  may  also 
be  given  to  become  familiar  with  the  methods  of  study- 
ing the  interrelation  of  mental  traits  and  with  some  of 
the  typical  results  of  such  a  study. 

In  addition  to  an  appreciation  of  the  facts  of  learn- 
ing established  by  the  experiments,  the  course  should 
stimulate  the  student  to  make  a  study  of  the  process  of 
experimentation  itself,  and  to  form  a  notion  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  a  valid  experimental  method.  The 
main  features  of  the  experimental  method  have  been 
frequently  described,  and  may  be  briefly  illustrated 
here  as  an  introduction  to  the  experiments  themselves. 

The  aim  of  scientific  investigation  may  be  said  to  be 
to  study  the  uniformities  in  the  facts  or  processes 
which  are  the  subjects  of  study.  This  usually  resolves 
itself  into  a  study  of  the  relationship  of  one  series  of 
events  to  another  as  to  cause  and  efiFect.  Thus,  the 
study  of  the  events  of  the  physical  world  has  led  to  the 
discoveries  of  certain  uniformities  or  laws,  such  as  the 
law  of  gravitation,  the  laws  of  light  and  sound  propa- 
gation, and  the  law  of  evolution.  Now,  the  discovery 


INTRODUCTION  5 

of  such  uniformities  merely  by  the  observation  of  the 
events  as  they  occur  spontaileously,  is  very  diflScult, 
since  a  particular  event  may  never  occm*  twice  with 
precisely  the  same  surrounding  conditions,  or  two 
events  between  which  the  relationship  is  to  be  discov- 
ered may  always  occur  intermingled  with  a  variety  of 
others.  Thus,  it  was  diflBcult  to  determine  purely  by 
observation  whether  or  not  the  bite  of  a  mosquito  is 
related  to  yellow  fever  as  cause  to  effect,  because  there 
were  associated  with  this  condition  a  variety  of  others 
—  such  as  contact  with  those  who  were  afflicted  with 
the  disease  —  to  complicate  the  relationship.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  experimental  method  was  re- 
sorted to  in  order  to  simplify  the  conditions  by  artifi- 
cially producing  the  events  which  were  to  be  studied,  in 
isolation  from  others.  That  is,  an  investigator  first  ex- 
posed himself  to  contact  with  a  yellow-fever  patient 
while  carefully  protecting  himself  from  the  bite  of  the 
mosquito;  and  then  exposed  himself  to  the  mosquito 
bite  while  remaining  isolated  from  infected  patients. 
The  experiment  proved  to  be  crucial  and  conclusive 
by  the  immunity  of  the  investigator  in  the  first  case 
and  his  infection  in  the  second. 

Sometimes  the  aim  of  an  experiment  is  not  so  specific 
as  this.  Instead  of  seeking  to  determine  which  of  two 
alternative  explanations  is  correct,  the  experimenter 
may  attempt  to  make  a  more  general  analysis  or  survey 
of  certain  phenomena,  for  the  sake  of  discovering  any 
laws  which  may  be  revealed,  and  of  hitting  upon  prob- 


6  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

lems  which  may  be  attacked  in  a  more  specific  manner 
afterwards.  Such  an  experiment  is  illustrated  in  the 
well-known  Bryan  and  Harter  experiment  in  learning 
the  telegraphic  language.  In  the  first  survey  experi- 
ment the  authors  discovered  the  existence  of  a  plateau 
or  long  level  place  in  the  curve  of  progress.  Their  later 
experiment  was  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the 
cause  of  this  phenomenon  by  further  analysis  of  the 
learning  ciu-ve  into  several  curves,  representing  prog- 
ress in  receiving  isolated  letters,  disconnected  words, 
and  connected  discourse. 

Whether  an  experiment  is  of  the  crucial  or  of  the 
general-survey  type,  it  has  certain  characteristics 
which  must  be  adhered  to  if  it  is  to  give  results  which 
are  reliable.  First,  all  the  conditions  which  might 
affect  the  result  in  any  degree  must  be  controlled,  as 
far  as  possible;  or,  if  they  cannot  be  controlled  com- 
pletely, they  must  be  accurately  measured  or  observed 
and  recorded.  The  simplest  method,  and  the  one 
which  is  pursued  as  far  as  possible,  is  to  keep  all  the 
conditions  constant  except  one,  and  then  to  vary  one 
condition  by  a  certain  known  amount,  and  measure  the 
result.  Thus,  we  may  measure  the  effect  of  practice  by 
giving  a  person  a  certain  specified  amount  of  practice 
in  a  particular  activity,  and  by  noting  the  change  in  his 
ability  without  introducing  or  allowing  a  change  in  any 
other  condition  which  would  affect  the  result.  If  the 
person  were  in  better  health  in  one  part  of  the  period 
than  in  another,  or  if  he  also  practiced  in  some  related 


INTRODUCTION  7 

field  which  aflFected  his  progress  in  the  one  under  inves- 
tigation, these  factors  would  have  to  be  taken  into 
account. 

It  is  frequently  impossible  or  very  difficult  to  study 
one  factor  in  isolation,  and  in  such  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  make  check  experiments.  J.  E.  W.  WaUin 
made  an  investigation  ^  of  the  effect  of  correcting  de- 
fects of  the  teeth  and  instituting  correct  habits  of  care 
of  the  mouth,  in  the  case  of  school  children,  which  illus- 
trates this  point.  A  group  of  children  were  tested  men- 
tally before,  during,  and  after  the  correction  of  mouth 
defects  and  the  institution  of  habits  of  hygiene,  which 
tests  continued  for  several  months,  and  a  large  im- 
provement was  found.  But  other  factors  than  oral 
hygiene  affected  the  results;  namely,  general  increase 
in  maturity,  school  work,  and  the  practice  with  the 
tests  themselves.  Wallin  himself  recognized  this  fact, 
and  wrote  that  it  had  been  his  plan  to  give  check  tests 
to  other  children  who  had  not  received  the  special 
treatment.  This  would  have  made  it  possible  to  dis- 
count the  other  factors.  This  principle  of  the  check 
test  has  a  very  wide  application,  and  will  be  illustrated 
in  several  of  the  experiments  of  this  course. 

Whatever  the  special  character  of  an  experiment,  the 
procedure  must  be  objective  and  verifiable.  The  possi- 
bility of  verification  by  the  repetition  of  the  experi- 
ment by  another  rests  upon  the  objectivity  of  the 

»  J.  E.  W.  Wallin,  "Experimental  Oral  Euthenics";  in  DenUU 
Cosmos,  April  and  May,  1912. 


8  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

procedure.  It  therefore  is  necessary  to  be  clear  as  to 
the  meaning  of  objectivity.  Objectivity  is  contrasted 
with  unsupported  opinion.  In  a  scientific  experiment 
it  requires  that  the  conditions  be  so  controlled  and 
reported  that  they  may  be  duplicated.  It  means  fur- 
ther that  the  results  be  carefully  measured  and  pre- 
sented, or,  when  measurement  is  not  possible,  that 
they  be  fully  and  accurately  described.  It  means 
finally  that  the  conclusions  which  are  drawn  shall 
rest  upon  the  results  which  are  presented,  so  that 
another  person  may  check  them  up  by  reference  to 
the  results  on  which  they  are  based. 

These  are,  in  brief  outline,  the  chief  requirements  of 
a  valid  scientific  experiment.  A  word  should  be  said 
about  the  presentation  of  results.  When  a  number  of 
experiments  are  made  with  the  same  subject,  or  when 
a  number  of  subjects  are  experimented  upon,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  employ  some  method  of  formulat- 
ing the  mass  of  results  so  as  to  show  their  trend.  Fre- 
quently the  significance  of  the  results  is  dependent 
upon  the  skill  with  which  this  formulation  is  made. 
Two  general  methods  of  formulation  may  be  distin- 
guished; the  tabular  presentation  or  statistical  formu- 
lation of  numerical  data,  and  the  graphic  presentation 
of  data.  Both  of  these  methods  will  be  illustrated  in 
the  presentation  of  typical  results  of  the  following  ex- 
periments. A  concise  account  of  the  chief  methods 
may  be  found  in  G.  M.  Whipple's  Manual  of  Mental 
and  Physical  TestSy  vol.  i,  chap.  3. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

The  chief  conditions  for  a  vaUd  experiment  may  be 
summed  up  in  a  set  of  rules:  — 

1.  So  far  as  possible  a  single  factor  should  be  iso- 
lated for  study.  When  this  cannot  be  done,  check 
experiments  should  be  made. 

2.  All  the  conditions  of  the  experiment  should  be 
made  quantitatively  as  precise  as  possible.  This 
includes  the  regulation  of  the  stimulus  as  to  the 
amount,  duration,  and  interval,  and  the  meas- 
urement of  response.  Where  required,  it  also 
involves  the  correct  statistical  formulation  of 
results.  'It  should  go  without  saying,  but  unfor- 
tunately does  not,  that  all  calculations  must  be 
accurate.  Every  calculation  should  be  checked.  ^ 

8.  In  some  cases  a  qualitative  interpretation  gives 
the  results  more  significantly  than  a  quantitative 
formulation  of  results. 

4.  The  analysis  or  interpretation  of  results  is  ex- 
tremely important,  particularly  in  a  survey 
experiment. 

6.  An  immediate  record  should  be  made  of  every- 
thing which  occurs,  as  introspections,  and  all 
records  should  be  completely  identified. 

6.  An  objective,  impartial  attitude  toward  the  re- 
sults is  essential. 

7.  The  problems  which  are  raised  by  the  experiment 
should  be  noted  as  well  as  the  solutions  which  are 
obtained,  and,  if  possible,  modifications  of  the 
experiment  should  be  set  up  to  attack  them. 


10  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

8.  The  conclusions  should  be  generaUzed  only  so  far 
as  the  results  justify. 

The  value  of  an  experiment  to  others  depends  on  the 
way  it  is  reported,  as  well  as  on  the  character  of  the 
experiment.  To  make  the  report  complete  it  should 
include:  — 

1.  A  brief  but  clear  statement  of  the  problem. 

2.  An  account  of  previous  investigations  leading  up 
to  the  present  one. 

3.  A  more  detailed  statement  of  the  problem  and 
method  of  the  experiment,  including  a  sketch  of 
the  apparatus. 

4.  A  presentation  by  tables,  graphic  figures,  and 
explanatory  statements  of  the  detailed  and  sum- 
mary results. 

6.  An  interpretative  discussion  of  the  results. 

6.  A  discriminating  statement  of  conclusions. 

7.  A  bibUography  of  the  references  used  in  the 
report. 

In  the  set  experiments  of  this  course  Nos.  2  and  7 
may  be  omitted,  but  they  are  necessary  in  an  original 
investigation. 

Note  to  the  instructor 

Most  of  the  experiments  which  are  here  outlined  are 
intended  to  be  performed  by  pairs  of  students  working 
together.  Each  student  should  work  both  as  experi- 
menter and  as  subject. 

Each  student  is  expected  to  turn  in  a  full  written 


INTRODUCTION  11 

report,  which  should  include  the  numerical  or  other 
data  which  were  obtained  by  himself  as  subject  and  a 
complete  analysis  and  interpretation  of  the  results. 
After  all  the  individual  reports  are  in  for  an  experi- 
ment, some  member  of  the  class  should  combine  the 
data  from  all  of  these  into  a  group  report.  This  group 
report  should  be  presented  at  a  class  meeting,  and 
thoroughly  discussed.  This  presentation  and  discus- 
sion of  the  group  results  is  the  most  valuable  phase  of 
the  whole  work.  It  makes  it  possible  to  discover  the 
general  results  as  they  emerge  from  the  variety  of  the 
individual  results,  and  also  makes  each  experiment  a 
study  of  individual  differences.  Furthermore,  it  gives 
excellent  opportunity  to  comment  on  violations  of 
correct  experimental  procedure  and  to  bring  home  the 
principles  of  valid  experimentation. 

1  Note.  —  The  apparatus  used  in  this  course  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  psychology  shop  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago by  writing  to  the  author,  or  from  C.  H.  Stocking  & 
Co.,  Chicago.  Prices  will  be  quoted  on  application. . 


CHAPTER  n 

ANALYSIS  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  THE  LEARNING 
PROCESS 

One  of  the  most  fruitful  fields  of  experimentation 
in  education  is  the  analysis  of  the  learning  process. 
Many  experiments  in  this  field  have  been  made,  and 
a  variety  of  types  of  learning  have  been  studied. 

The  types  of  learning  which  have  been  the  subjects 
of  investigation  may  be  classified,  roughly,  into  four 
groups:  — 

A.  The  development  of  a  motor  coordination. 

B.  The  development  of  adequate  perception. 

C.  The   formation   of   associations   between   per- 
ceptual or  ideational  elements. 

D.  The  analysis  of  a  situation. 

Such  a  classification  as  this  is  of  value  because  it 
distinguishes  between  processes  which  differ  from  the 
descriptive  point  of  view,  as  well  as  in  the  methods 
which  are  best  suited  to  hasten  progress  in  the  several 
kinds  of  learning.  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however, 
that  the  same  task  may  not  include  more  than  one 
kind  of  learning,  or  that  similarities  between  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  learning  cannot  be  found. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  IS 

Experiment  No.  1 

sensori-motor  learning 

Problem.  The  first  experiment  is  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  the  development  of  a  motor  coordination. 
The  development  of  motor  coordination  in  its  simplest 
terms  consists  in  the  adjustment  of  a  movement  to  a 
stimulus,  or,  more  particularly,  in  the  development  of 
the  ability  to  make  movements  which  shall  meet  cer- 
tain conditions  presented  in  perceptual  form.  Physio- 
logically, motor  learning  consists  in  the  formation  of 
appropriate  nervous  connections,  or  paths  of  discharge, 
between  certain  sensory  centers  and  certain  motor 
centers.  This  is  the  matter  reduced  to  simplest  terms. 
The  process  of  such  development  is  illustrated  by  J.  H. 
Bair's  experiment  in  learning  to  move  the  ears.  There 
being  no  instinctive  connection  between  the  sensations 
which  accompany  ear  movements  and  the  movements 
themselves,  this  connection  has  to  be  formed  through 
practice.  A  more  complex  type  of  learning  consists  in 
adapting  a  series  of  movements  to  a  complex  stimulus 
or  to  a  changing  stimulus.  Swift's  ball-tossing  experi- 
ment, and  the  experiment  included  in  this  course,  are 
relatively  simple  examples  of  this  type.  The  matter 
becomes  more  complex  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
organize  the  perceptual  or  motor  elements,  as  in  Bryan 
and  Barter's  experiment  with  telegraphy  or  Swift's  or 
Book's  experiments  in  learning  to  use  the  typewriter. 


14  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Such  experiments  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  educa- 
tion wherever  it  is  concerned  with  the  development  of 
motor  skill,  as  in  handwriting,  drawing,  and  the  man- 
ual arts  generally.  The  results  of  such  experiments 
also  have  an  indirect  bearing  on  education  by  means  of 
the  discovery,  through  them,  of  general  principles  of 


Fio.  1.    DRAWING  OF  APPARATUS  USED  IN  EXPERIMENT  NO.  1, 
8H0WINO  XHB  GENERAL  RELATIONS  07  THE  MECHANISM 


the  learning  process  —  as,  for  example,  the  relation  of 
effort  to  progress  in  learning. 

Material  and  method.  The  learning  process  in  this 
experiment  consists  in  adapting  simple  hand  move- 
ments to  the  drawing  of  a  series  of  lines  to  connect  a 
group  of  dots,  when  the  relation  between  the  direction 
of  the  hand  movements  and  of  the  movement  of  the 
pen  which  produces  the  lines  is  different  from  that  to 
which  one  is  accustomed.  The  modification  in  the  rela- 
tionship between  the  hand  movements  and  the  result- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  15 

ing  pen  movements  is  made  by  means  of  a  mechanism, 
the  study  of  which  is  left  to  the  student.  (See  Fig.  1.) 
In  addition  to  the  modification  produced  by  this  mech- 
anism, the  apparent  direction  of  the  pen  movement  is 
changed,  not  by  mechanical  adjustments,  but  by  the 
use  of  a  mirror.  By  varying  the  position  of  the  mirror, 
this  apparent  direction  may  be  changed  at  will.  For 
the  study  of  progress  in  learning,  let  one  person  of  each 
pair  place  the  mirror  parallel  to  the  long  side  of  the 
board  which  is  farther  from  the  subject.  Let  the  sec- 
ond member  of  each  pair  place  the  mirror  parallel  to 
the  left  side  of  the  base. 

The  apparatus  should  be  placed  so  that  the  long  side 
of  the  base  is  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  table,  and  the 
handle  in  a  convenient  position  to  be  manipulated  by 
the  right  hand. 

Stimulus  card  No.  1  is  to  be  used  in  this  experiment, 
and  is  to  be  placed  with  the  margins  parallel  to  the 
edges  of  the  apparatus  and  with  the  X  toward  the 
subject.  The  stimulus  cards  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying Figure  2. 

To  indicate  the  order  in  which  the  lines  are  to  be 
drawn,  small  groups  of  dots  are  used,  instead  of  figures, 
since  the  figm-es  would  have  to  be  reversed  in  order 
to  be  read  in  a  mirror.  The  lines  are  to  be  drawn 
from  circle  1  to  circle  2,  then  to  circle  3,  and  so  on; 
and  the  star  should  be  finally  completed  by  connect- 
ing circles  6  and  1.  The  aim  of  the  subject  should 
be  to  cause  the  pen  to  touch  each  dot  in  succession 


16 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


••• 
O 


•  o 


o  •• 


o 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 


stimulus  Card  No.  I. 


o 


•  •  o 


_•_  o 


•  •  • 


o 


stimulus  Card  No.  IL 

Fis.  2.    ARRANGEMENT  OF  CARDS  USED 
IN  EXPERIMENT  NO.   1 


as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  cri- 
terion of  progress 
may  be  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  time 
taken  to  complete 
the  whole  figure. 

Since  the  accu- 
racy requirement 
is  constant,  name- 
ly, that  each  dot 
shall  be  touched 
in  succession,  the 
time  taken  serves 
as  a  convenient 
and  sufficiently 
adequate  measure 
of  efficiency. 

The  experi- 
menter should 
note  the  time  of 
each  trial  with  a 
stop-watch,  and 
should  attend  to 
changing  the 
cards,  keeping  the 
pen  supplied  with 
ink,  etc. 

Twenty-five  tri- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  17 

als  should  be  made  with  the  card  and  mirror,  as  indi- 
cated above. 

The  subject  should  make  note  diu-ing  the  experiment 
of  any  introspections  he  may  make  regarding  the 
means  by  which  improvement  is  attained,  the  direc- 
tion of  his  attention,  etc. 

In  order  to  throw  light  upon  the  value  and  limita- 
tions of  instruction  in  this  type  of  learning,  the  follow- 
ing method  should  be  employed:  Let  one  student  of 
each  pair  first  go  through  the  experiment  without  in- 
struction or  any  special  consideration  of  the  methods 
of  learning.  Let  him  then  develop,  as  best  he  can 
on  the  basis  of  his  own  experience  and  of  his  reading, 
the  principles  and  rules  of  economical  sensori-motor 
learning,  and  instruct  his  partner  in  these  rules  and 
principles.  These  instructions  should  be  formulated 
in  writing  and  included  in  the  report.  They  should 
not  be  made  too  specific,  but  should  be  of  such  a  kind 
that  they  could  be  applied  to  other  tasks  in  learning 
which  are  of  a  similar  nature.  The  second  student 
may  also  obtain  what  light  he  can  on  the  best  method 
of  procedure  from  an  observation  of  his  predecessor, 
and  should  give  an  account  of  his  conclusions  in  his 
report.  He  should  also  discuss  the  question  whether 
the  instructions  were  of  assistance  to  him.  The  gen- 
eral report  should  include  a  comparison  of  the  records 
of  the  instructed  and  uninstructed  learners. 

Treatment  of  results.  A  curve  of  progress  should  be 
constructed  by  charting,  on  cross-section  paper,  the 


18  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

time  taken  for  the  successive  trials.  Each  trial  may  be 
represeinted  by  a  unit  on  the  horizontal  axis,  and  the 
height  of  the  curve  above  these  successive  unit  dis- 
tances may  represent  the  length  of  time  required  for 
the  succeeding  trials.  Thus  a  drop  in  the  cm-ve  means 
decrease  in  the  time  required,  or  improvement. 

An  analysis  of  the  practice  curve  should  be  made,  so 
as  to  explain  its  general  form  and  any  fluctuations 
which  may  appear.  In  the  analysis  and  interpretation 
of  the  curves,  use  should  be  made  of  the  notes  on 
introspections. 

The  numerical  results  which  are  the  basis  of  the 
practice  curves  should  be  presented  in  the  form  of 
tables. 

The  general  report  upon  this  experiment  should 
discuss,  first,  individual  diflferences  with  reference  to 
the  rate  of  improvement,  the  amoimt  of  skill  attained, 
the  suddenness  or  gradualness  of  improvement;  and, 
second,  the  general  facts  common  to  the  individual 
results,  as  the  part  of  the  practice  series  at  which  the 
more  rapid  part  of  the  improvement  occurs,  and  the 
effect  of  intelligent  instruction  upon  learning.  A  gen- 
eral summary  should  also  be  made  of  the  individual 
analyses  and  interpretations.  This  should  include  a 
discussion  of  the  difficulties  which  had  to  be  overcome 
and  the  methods  and  devices  which  were  employed  in 
overcoming  them. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  Some  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant results  of  this  experiment  are  derived  from  an 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  19 

analysis  by  each  subject  of  his  experience  in  the  learn- 
ing, and  from  the  interpretation  of  this  experience  so 
as  to  apply  the  conclusions  to  similar  forms  of  learning, 
such  as  handwriting.  In  order  to  give  opportunity  for 
some  originality  in  this  analysis  and  interpretation, 
the  discussion  of  these  matters  will  not  be  entered  upon 
here.  The  province  of  "  instruction  "  in  this  type  of 
learning,  and  the  kind  of  instruction  which  is  of  most 
value,  is  directly  related  to  the  learning  process. 

Typical  objective  data  on  which  the  interpretative 
discussion  just  mentioned  may  be  based  are  presented 
in  Chart  I.  It  is  clear  that  there  is  some  radical  differ- 
ence between  the  "  instructed  "  and  the  "  uninstructed  " 
groups  which  is  to  be  explained.  The  difference  is 
not  accidental,  since  this  is  a  typical  case.  The  ques- 
tion should  be  raised  whether  the  verbal  instructions 
in  this  case  constituted  the  only  factor  which  was  dif- 
ferent in  the  two  groups.  If  the  analysis  of  the  situa- 
tion should  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  are  other 
differences  between  the  groups  introduced  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  experiment  than  that  of  the  presence  or 
absence  of  verbal  instructions,  the  importance  of  these 
other  factors  should  be  estimated.  If  there  is  opportu- 
nity to  carry  on  other  experiments  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  instruction  and  of  these  other  factors  may  be 
measured. 

The  median  curves  give  a  good  basis  for  the  discus- 
sion of  the  general  form  of  the  practice  curve,  and  for 
an  attempt  to  explain  it.  In  this  discussion  it  is  well  to 


"' 

-1 

" 

~ 

^ 

seconds 

' 

160 

140 

120 

100 

\ 

1 

80 

\ 

1 

1 

y 

\ 

60 

1 

' 

\ 

\ 

40 

L^ 

\ 

V 

> 

N 

/ 

V 

\ 

> 

20 

k, 

s 

s, 

' 

K, 

"V, 

"* 

-- 

,. 

'' 

k 

— 

y 

^ 

— 

k^ 

_ 

— 



_ 

_ 

L_ 

Trials 


10 


15 


20 


25 


Chabt  I.  CURVES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  MODIFIED  MIR- 
ROR DRAWING  BASED  ON  THE  MEDIANS  OF  TWO 
GROUPS  OF  INDIVIDUALS 

The  upper  line  represents  the  "  uninstructed  "  group  (eleven 
individuals)  and  the  lower  line  the  "iiutructed"  (nine  isdi- 
▼idoals). 


"■ 

~ 

-\ 

~1 

~ 

-^ 

~^ 

• 

Time  in 

seconds 

i 

200 

I 

-^ 

\ 

180 

160 

2 

1  '^ 

140 

1 

I 

120 

tt 

/ 

/ , 

100 

I 

\ 

\. 

80 

V 

\ 

60 

\ 

/i 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

i_ 

\ 

J 

■ 

i_ 

\ 

I 

/ 

\ 

■^ 

'V 

\ 

/ 

\ 

> 

\ 

y 

/\. 

20 

V 

■^ 

s 

\ 

s 

(^ 

o 

V' 

\ 

>< 

"N 

V 

■^v 

— 

.. 

^ 

~- 

— 

— 

■~ 

r- 

^ 

^ 

f 

s 

3 

.. 

_ 

., 

Trials 


10 


15 


20 


25 


Chaet  II.    curves   of  PROGRESS   OF  THREE   INDI- 
VIDUALS  IN  MODIFIED  MIRROR  DRAWING 

Showing  individual  differences  in  rapidity  of  tlie  eensori- 
motor  process  and  in  rate  of  improvement.  The  fluctuations 
in  an  individual's  practice  curve  are  also  brought  out.  It  should 
be  noted  tliat  the  scale  of  this  chart  in  respect  to  the  represen- 
tation of  the  time  of  the  trials  is  reduced,  making  the  height 
of  the  curves  half  that  of  the  curves  of  Chart  I. 


22  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

compare  the  form  of  these  curves  with  that  of  others, 
as,  for  example,  those  of  Bryan  and  Harter's  experi- 
ment, and  the  ball-tossing  experiment  of  Swift. 

The  great  individual  differences  which  appear  in 
such  a  form  of  learning  as  this  are  clearly  illustrated  in 
Chart  II.  These  extremes  are  not  at  all  unusual.  Their 
significance  and  educational  bearing  may  be  discussed. 
The  introspective  notes  should  throw  some  Ught  on  the 
fluctuations  which  are  to  be  observed  in  the  individual 
ciu'ves. 

A  comparison  of  the  records  of  those  individuals  who 
attempt  to  analyze  the  relationship  of  the  hand  move- 
ment to  the  pen  movement,  in  order  to  guide  their 
efforts  by  a  comprehension  of  this  relationship,  indi- 
cates that,  on  the  average,  they  take  more  time  to 
learn  than  those  who  abandon  such  attempts  and 
resort  to  random  trial.  In  one  group  the  average  time 
spent  by  those  who  attempted  analysis  was  forty-five 
seconds  per  trial,  and  by  those  who  did  not,  thirty-one 
seconds. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  It  would  be  worth 
while  to  know  whether  those  who  make  a  thorough 
analysis  before  starting  are  benefited  thereby  in  their 
first  set  of  trials,  and  also  whether  they  do  better  when 
the  conditions  are  modified,  as  in  Experiment  No.  4. 
To  study  this  question  a  class  may  be  divided  into  two 
equal  groups.  One  group  may  then  proceed  according 
to  the  regular  directions,  and  the  other  may  remove 
the  cover,  study  the  levers,  and  work  out  by  diagram 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  28 

the  relationship  of  the  pen  and  the  hand  movements 
to  the  movements  of  the  hand.  This  should  be  done 
without  practicing  making  the  movements  with  the 
hand. 

A  marked  plateau  does  not  usually  appear  in  this 
particular  form  of  learning  so  far  as  it  is  carried.  The 
experiment  may  be  extended  by  adding  other  trials  to 
determine  whether  a  plateau  would  then  appear.  A 
further  extension  may  be  made  by  trying  the  experi- 
ment with  children  of  different  ages.  If  opportu- 
nity offers,  the  correlation  between  ability  in  this  task 
and  in  other  forms  of  sensory  motor  learning  might 
be  foimd. 


24  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

These  questions  are  intended  to  stimulate  reflection  upon  the 
wider  applications  of  the  experiment. 

1.  What  are  the  likenesses  or  differences  between  the  problem 
confronting  the  subject  in  this  experiment  and  the  problem 
before  the  child  in  learning  to  write? 

2.  What  is  indicated  by  the  experiment  regarding  the  sphere  of 
the  trial  and  success  method  in  learning?  Of  what  value  is 
the  attempt  to  analyze  the  conditions  of  the  problem? 

3.  a.  What  bearing  does  one's  general  attitude,  as  of  confidence  or 

the  reverse,  have  upon  progress? 

b.  What  bearing  does  physical  condition  have? 

c.  What  is  the  effect  of  special  effort? 

4.  Does  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  learning  have  any  beneficial 
effect  upon  the  control  of  the  feelings  and  one's  attitude  toward 
them? 

6.  In  what  respect  and  to  what  extent  is  instruction  of  value  in 
facilitating  progress? 

6.  What  bearing  do  individual  differences  have  on  the  develop- 
ment and  application  of  instructions? 

7.  Is  the  possibility  of  analysis  greater  or  less  in  this  experiment 
than  in  the  child's  sensori-motor  learning? 

8.  What  is  the  role  of  repetition  in  such  learning  as  this? 

9.  How  are  trials  made  more  correct  —  by  a  study  of  the  move- 
ment or  of  the  external  result? 

10.  What  place  has  the  study  of  the  movement? 

REFERENCES 

Bair,  J.  H.  "The  Development  of  Voluntary  Control";  in  Psy- 
chological Review,  vol.  viii  (1901),  p.  474. 

Bryan  and  Harter.  "  Experiments  in  Learning  the  Telegraphic 
Language";  in  Psychological  Review  (1897),  pp.  27-63;  (1899), 
pp.  345-575. 

Book,  W.  F.  Psychology  of  Skill. 

Dearborn,  W.  F.  "Experiments  in  Learning";  in  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  vol.  i  (1909-10),  p.  373. 

Ruger,  H.  A.  Psychology  of  Efficiency. 

Starch,  D.  Exferimenis  in  Educational  Psychology,  p.  84. 

Swift,  E.  J.  Mind  in  the  Making. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  «5 

s. 

Experiment  No.  2 
perceptual  learning 

Problem.  The  second  experiment  deals  with  a  type 
of  learning  in  which  the  perceptual  element  is  pre- 
dominant. This  element  enters  into  many  forms  of 
learning  which  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  mainly  motor 
in  character.  In  handwriting,  for  example,  the  per- 
ception of  form  precedes  its  reproduction,  and  also  is 
made  more  precise  by  the  effort  at  reproduction.  In 
typewriting  the  comprehension  of  the  relation  of  the 
letter  positions  on  the  keyboard  to  the  letters  which 
compose  a  printed  or  imagined  word  is  at  first  chiefly  a 
matter  of  perception.  Finally,  it  is  now  recognized 
that  in  drawing  the  perceptual  element  is  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  motor  element.  The  ability  to  ar- 
range proportions  and  directions  of  lines  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  constitute  the  picture  of  an  object  is 
more  a  matter  of  seeing  relationships  in  space  properly 
than  of  skill  in  handling  a  pencil.  Drawing  a  figure  in 
which  the  elements  present  no  technical  difficulty  is 
therefore  an  excellent  means  of  testing  the  accuracy  of 
perception  and  of  tracing  the  development  of  per- 
ception. 

Material  and  method.  For  this  purpose  a  series  of 
six  figures  may  be  used  (and  these  are  reproduced  in 
the  Appendix).  The  experimenter  should  be  prepared 
with  a  watch  having  a  second  hand,  and  a  series  of 


99  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

cards  upon  which  the  figures  are  drawn.  The  cards 
should  be  placed  face  down  and  arranged  in  order, 
with  the  first  one  on  top.  The  subject  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  number  of  sheets  of  paper  the  same  size 
as  the  cards.  After  a  ready  signal,  the  experimenter 
should  hold  the  first  card  in  such  a  position  that  the 
subject  may  see  it  clearly  for  ten  seconds.  When  the 
card  is  lowered,  the  subject  should  immediately  draw 
what  he  can  of  the  figure  and  then  turn  or  fold  the 
sheet  over  so  as  to  conceal  what  he  has  drawn.  The 
figure  should  then  be  presented  again  and  drawn  from 
memory.  This  procedure  may  be  repeated  until  the 
subject  is  confident  that  he  has  mastered  the  figure. 
The  experimenter  should  observe  and  note  any  actions 
on  the  part  of  the  subject  which  give  indication  of  the 
method  by  which  he  attacks  the  figure. 

The  comparison  of  instructed  and  uninstructed 
learning  should  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
Experiment  No.  1. 

The  person  who  serves  as  experimenter  should  avoid 
becoming  familiar  with  the  figures  while  his  partner  is 
drawing  them. 

»,  Treatment  of  results.  The  experiment  is  not  chiefly 
to  measure  efficiency  or  rate  of  learning,  but  to  analyze 
and  describe  the  mental  process  by  means  of  which  the 
learning  proceeds.  To  this  end  it  is  essential  that  the 
subject  make  a  careful  note  of  the  results  by  the  most 
careful  introspection  he  can  make.  He  should  have 
paper  at  hand  upon  which  he  can  make  brief  notes  as      t 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  '      «7 

the  experiment  proceeds,  and  which  he  can  elaborate 
when  it  is  finished.  Further  data  regarding  the  stages 
in  the  development  of  a  perception  may  be  gathered 
from  the  drawings  themselves.  These  are  to  be  ex- 
amined for  the  purpose  of  analyzing  them  qualita- 
tively rather  than  of  measuring  them  quantitatively. 
The  drawings  themselves,  and  a  table  giving  the  num- 
ber of  presentations  for  each  figure,  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  report  to  serve  as  a  basis  of  the  general 
report. 

After  each  student  has  worked  up  his  own  results, 
they  may  with  advantage  be  compared  with  those 
found  by  the  other  members  of  the  class  in  the  general 
report.  In  this  way  individual  differences  in  the 
method  of  attacking  the  figures  may  be  discovered. 
The  general  report  should  also  make  a  comparative 
study  of  such  matters  as  the  order  in  which  the  parts 
of  the  figure  are  learned,  the  number  of  gross  errors 
made  in  different  figures,  or  different  sorts  of  lines,  etc. 
The  general  report  should  also  give  an  analysis  of 
the  learning  process  in  this  experiment  and  compare  it 
with  the  report  of  the  study  by  Judd  and  Cowling, 
and  should  compare  the  process  in  instructed  and  unin- 
structed  learning. 

Results  of  tiie  experiment.  The  chief  results  of  this 
experiment  are  to  be  found  in  the  analysis  of  the  proc- 
ess of  perceptual  learning,  as  suggested  in  the  topics 
for  discussion.  The  numerical  data  are  here  subordi- 
nate to  the  introspective  account  of  the  process  and  a 


S8  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

description  of  the  mode  of  procedure,  as  far  as  such  can 
be  made  from  an  examination  of  the  drawings  them- 
selves. From  such  an  examination  it  will  appear,  for 
example,  that  the  scrutiny  of  such  figures  as  these  for 
the  purpose  of  reproducing  them  proceeds,  whether 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain previously  formed  habits.  Thus  it  will  be  found 
that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  examination  of  the 
figiu-es  begins  at  the  left.  In  general  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  active  exploration  of  the  figures  rather  than 
a  passive  reception  of  impressions.  The  bearing  of  past 
experience  in  influencing  the  manner  in  which  the  ele- 
ments of  the  figure  are  organized,  appears  clearly  in 
the  manner  in  which  groups  of  Unes  become  intimately 
fused  into  an  organic  whole  because  they  resemble 
some  familiar  form,  and  in  the  application  of  concepts 
or  modes  of  interpretation  such  as  line,  angle,  and 
number.  Analysis  and  synthesis  are  both  evident. 

Complete  tables  would  show  individual  differences 
in  the  number  of  trials  taken  and  the  number  of  errors 
made,  but  space  need  not  be  taken  for  them  here. 

The  use  of  instructions  for  a  part  of  the  students  in 
this  experiment  —  in  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
used  —  serves  rather  to  raise  the  whole  question  of  the 
value  of  instructions  in  perceptual  learning,  and  the 
type  of  instructions  which  are  helpful,  than  to  lead  to 
any  definitive  conclusion.  It  is  necessary  to  caution 
the  second  experimenter  particularly  about  giving 
specific  information  about  the  figures  in  the  instruc- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS 


29 


tions.  The  first  experimenter  must  also  avoid  gaining 
familiarity  with  the  figures  while  his  partner  is  drawing 
them. 

Typical  results  are  shown  in  Table  I. 


TABLE  I.  SCORES  MADE  IN  THE  PERCEPTUAL- 
LEARNING  EXPERIMENT 

(a)  Average  number  of  trials  required  to  draw  the  figures  by 
instructed  and  uninstructed  learners 


Figures 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Group  I  — 
Instructed.  . . . 
Uninstructed . . 

5.4 

7.5 

4.2 
4.7 

3.4 
3.7 

5.4 

4.7 

4.8 
4.5 

Group  II  — 
Instructed .... 
Uninstructed . . 

7.7 
8.3 

5.5 
5.8 

4.7 
5.0 

6.3 
6.5 

8.3 
6.2 

4.2 
4.8 


5.3 
6.0 


(6)  Number  of  errors  made  in  drawing  the  figures 


Figures 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Group  I  — 
Instructed.  .  .  . 
Uninstructed . . 

137 
180 

110 
122 

48 

72 

161 
145 

118 
93 

97 
126 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  instructed  learners  do  better 
than  those  who  are  uninstructed,  except  in  figures  4 
and  5,  and  that  the  uninstructed  do  better  in  these  two 
figures,  except  in  one  case.  By  reference  to  the  copies 
of  the  figures  in  the  Appendix  it  appears  that  figures  4 


80  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

and  5  diflFer  in  an  important  respect  from  the  others. 
Instead  of  beginning  with  a  straight  line  these  two 
figures  begin  with  a  cm-ved  line.  It  is  tempting  to  con- 
clude from  these  limited  data  that  instructions  may  be 
of  such  a  nature  that,  while  they  prepare  the  learner  to 
cope  better  with  a  specific  sort  of  problem,  they  impair 
his  facility  in  dealing  with  a  problem  of  a  shghtly  dif- 
ferent sort. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  The  testing  of  this 
hypothesis  by  varying  the  instructions  and  the  nature 
of  the  figiu-es  would  be  an  interesting  form  of  variation 
of  this  experiment. 

The  conditions  of  the  experiment  might  be  varied 
also  in  other  ways.  Instead  of  setting  before  the  sub- 
ject a  figure  that  is  to  be  copied,  some  piece  of  mech- 
anism, such  as  a  lock,  or  a  natural  object  such  as  a 
feather,  might  be  set  before  the  subject  with  the  re- 
quirement that  he  make  a  diagram  which  would  show 
the  working  relation  of  the  parts.  In  the  case  of  the 
feather  a  magnifying  glass  would  have  to  be  used  so 
that  the  minute  parts  could  be  distinguished.  Another 
type  of  variation  would  be  the  use  of  more  complex 
figures.  The  study  of  age  differences  would  give  profit- 
able results,  as  in  the  case  of  Experiment  No.  1.  With 
reference  to  the  effect  of  instructions,  comparison 
might  be  made,  not  only  with  uniform  instructions,  but 
also  with  instructions  which  were  followed  throughout 
a  longer  series  of  drawings. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  81 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Compare  the  perception  of  a  figure  before  and  after  it  has  been 
scrutinized  in  detail. 

2.  Mention  all  the  types  of  analysis  which  were  carried  on  in  ac- 
quiring a  mastery  of  the  figure. 

8.  Compare  the  importance  of  the  impression  factor  and  the 
meaning  factor  in  perception  as  illustrated  in  thb  experiment. 

4.  Describe  the  part  which  general  ideas  or  concepts  play  in  work- 
ing up  such  a  figiu*e. 

6.  Give  suggestions  of  methods  to  be  used  in  developing  such  a 
perception. 

6.  What  false  assumptions  may  be  made  in  education  concerning 
the  child's  experience  when  a  concrete  object  is  presented  to 
him? 

7.  What  part  does  movement  play  in  the  development  of  per- 
ception? List  all  the  movements  you  can  that  were  used  by 
the  subject  in  this  study. 

8.  Describe  so  far  as  you  can  the  changes  In  the  relation  of  motor 
responses  to  perception  as  the  child  grows  older. 

9.  Compare  language  as  a  form  of  motor  response  with  manual 
activities. 

REFERENCES 

F.  C.  Ayre.    The  Psychology  of  Drawing.  Baltimore,  1916. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  and  Cowling,  D.  J.  "Perceptual  Learning";  in  Psy- 
chological Review,  Monograph  Supplement,  vol.  viii;  also  in  Yale 
Studies,  New  Series,  vol.  i,  no.  2,  pp.  849-69. 

Judd.  C.  H.  Laboratory  Manual  of  Psychology,  Exercise  xvm. 

See  also,  Judd,  C.  H.  Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers,  chaps,  i 
and  II,  for  a  general  discussion  of  the  relation  of  the  impression  and 
meaning  factors  in  learning. 


82  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

EXPERDHENT  No.   3 
LEARNING   OF   THE   PROBLEM-SOLVING   TTPB 

Problem.  Problems  of  the  type  represented  in  this 
experiment  may  in  general  be  described  as  being  of 
such  a  nature  that  a  grasp  of  their  essential  elements 
and  their  relations  will  lead  to  an  immediate  solution 
without  the  intervention  of  a  period  of  gradual  prog- 
ress or  improvement  in  skill.  The  experiments  which 
are  here  included  are  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the 
process  of  analysis,  which  is  the  typical  method  in  this 
kind  of  learning,  and  its  relation  to  other  types  of 
learning.  This  experiment,  as  in  the  experiment  on 
perceptual  learning,  is  for  the  purpose  of  qualitative 
description  and  analysis  of  the  mental  process  in- 
volved, rather  than  for  quantitative  treatment. 

The  two  parts  of  this  experiment  may  be  performed 
individually.  We  shall  compare  the  results  of  naive 
procedure,  and  of  procedure  after  a  discussion  of  the 
nature  of  the  problem.  Let  one  of  each  pair  of  students 
who  work  together  proceed  according  to  the  naive 
method,  and  the  other  proceed  according  to  the  in- 
structed method. 

(l)  Naive  method.  According  to  this  method  the 
problem  is  presented  in  simple  terms  and  the  student 
is  left  to  work  it  out  without  any  discussion  of  the 
principles  which  are  involved.  The  students  who  use 
this  method  should  proceed  at  once  to  the  directions 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  8S 

for  the  conduct  of  the  individual  experiments  (see, 
below,  "  a.  Puzzle-box  experiment ")  without  reading 
the  discussion  which  follows  in  the  next  paragraph. 

(2)  Instructed  method.  The  purpose  of  giving  these 
additional  instructions  to  part  of  the  group  is  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  a  general  notion  of  scientific 
method  in  attacking  such  problems  as  involve  analysis 
enables  one  to  attack  them  in  a  more  efficient  manner 
than  otherwise.  In  attacking  these  problems  endeavor 
to  observe  the  following  principles :  — 

(a)  The  problem  to  be  solved  should  be  thoroughly 
understood. 

(6)  If  possible,  the  problem  should  be  broken  up  into 
parts  or  stages  and  the  difficulties  located.  The  diffi- 
culties should  then  be  attacked  singly  to  eliminate 
those  which  can  be  easily  solved. 

(c)  When  the  chief  difficulty  or  difficulties  have  been 
located,  the  various  possibilities  which  suggest  them- 
selves for  its  solution  should  be  reviewed  and  if  their 
feasibility  cannot  be  otherwise  tested,  they  should  be 
actually  tried  out.  In  mentally  reviewing  the  various 
possibilities,  previously  acquired  general  experience 
should  be  employed  to  avoid  the  consideration  of  ab- 
surd or  impossible  solutions.  The  general  procedure  is 
to  choose  for  consideration  suggested  solutions  in  the 
order  of  their  apparent  probability,  and  then  to  trace 
the  consequences  of  each,  one  at  a  time.  Proposed 
solutions  which  are  found  not  to  work  should  not  be 
reconsidered  until  every  other  possibility  is  tried  out. 


84  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

(d)  The  fact  that  a  solution  is  possible  should  be  kept 
in  mind  and  the  attitude  of  discouragement  avoided. 
The  mind  should  be  kept  in  a  calm  and  collected  condi- 
tion, and  confusion  and  random  guessing  should  be 
avoided. 

a.  Puzzle-hox  experiment 

Material  and  method.  The  material  consists  of  a 
box,  the  opening  of  which  is  kept  closed  by  a  series 
of  fastenings.  (See  Fig.  3,  on  the  next  page.)  The 
student,  of  course,  should  not  study  the  figure  before 
opening  the  box.  The  box  should  be  opened  as  quickly 
as  possible  without  breaking  or  imduly  straining  any 
of  the  fastenings.  The  time  from  the  attacking  of  the 
problem  should  be  taken,  preferably  with  a  stop-watch, 
and  recorded.  Introspections  should  be  made  of  the 
manner  of  solving  the  problem. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  subject  should  describe 
fully  his  experiences  in  solving  the  puzzle,  touching 
such  points  as  the  part  played  by  random  movements, 
the  clues  which  were  discovered  before  any  movements 
were  made,  the  points  at  which  a  trial  led  to  the  cor- 
rection of  a  previous  hypothesis,  and  the  extent  to 
which  the  relation  between  the  whole  series  of  steps 
was  clearly  recognized. 


86  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

b.  Problem  of  drawing  a  figure  by  continuous  lines 
vnthout  retracing  {Tail  labyrinth  puzzle) 

Problem.  The  task  before  the  subject  consists  in 
making  an  analysis  of  a  two-dimensional  figm-e  so  that 
it  can  be  apprehended  as  consisting  of  a  continuous 
line  without  retracing. 

Material  and  method.  The  material  is  the  figure 
used  and  described  by  Lindley  in  the  article  referred  to 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment,  and  which  is  reproduced 
in  the  Appendix.  (The  reference  should  not  be  read 
until  after  the  experiment  has  been  performed.)  Let 
the  subject  begin  his  scrutiny  of  the  figm-e  immediately 
after  making  note  of  the  time.  As  soon  as  he  pleases  he 
may  attempt  to  draw  the  figure  upon  a  blank  sheet  of 
paper  in  the  manner  required.  The  figure  may  be  kept 
in  view  and  referred  to  during  the  drawing.  No  atten- 
tion need  be  paid  to  the  technical  excellence  of  the 
drawing.  If  the  first  attempt  is  successful,  the  time  of 
finishing  should  be  recorded.  If  not,  the  figure  should 
be  observed  again,  and  so  on  until  the  figure  is  cor- 
rectly drawn. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  results  should  include  the 
time  taken  for  observation  and  drawing,  the  series  of 
drawings  themselves,  and  the  subject's  introspection 
of  the  process  of  analysis  of  the  figure.  The  report 
should  consist  in  a  description  of  the  method  by  which 
the  problem  was  solved,  based  upon  the  introspections 
and  a  study  of  the  drawings  themselves.  Such  topics 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  37 

should  be  considered  as  the  relation  between  the 
amount  of  random  trial  and  of  analysis  or  planning; 
the  products  of  the  analysis,  or  the  simpler  figiu*es  into 
which  the  complex  figure  was  broken  up;  particular 
parts  which  were  found  to  be  crucial;  any  abstract 
reasoning  which  was  employed. 

The  general  reports  of  both  "  a  "  and  "  b  "  should 
discuss  individual  diflFerences  in  methods  of  procedure, 
in  eflSciency  of  learning,  and  any  relation  which  may  be 
found  between  method  and  degree  of  efficiency.  The 
general  resemblances  between  the  results  f oimd  by  the 
different  individuals  and  the  differences  between 
the  results  of  those  who  proceeded  by  the  naive  and 
the  instructed  methods  should  also  be  described  fully. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  significant  results 
from  this  experiment,  as  from  the  preceding  one,  con- 
sist very  largely  in  the  qualitative  analysis  of  the  learn- 
ing processes  in  this  type  of  problem.  In  general  the 
wide  difference  between  problem-solving  learning  and 
sensori-motor  or  perceptual  learning  may  be  recog- 
nized in  the  fact  that  the  solution  of  a  problem  of  the 
puzzle  type  may  be  due  to  a  clear  recognition  of  the 
relationship  of  the  elements  of  the  problem,  even 
though  some  fumbling  and  haphazard  guessing  precede 
the  recognition.  The  method  is  here  distinguished 
from  the  result. 

The  objective  record  of  the  time  required  by  the 
different  members  of  the  class,  coupled  with  the  intro- 
spective accounts  of  the  methods  used,  throw  light  on 


88 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


some  of  the  facts  of  individual  differences  in  time, 
method,  and  the  relation  of  native  tendencies  or  ac- 
quired habits  to  instructions  in  this  type  of  problem. 
Table  II  gives  the  numerical  results  from  the  members 
of  one  class  for  both  puzzles. 


TABLE  II.  SCORES  IN  THE  TAIT  LABYRINTH 
AND  PUZZLE  BOX 


(a  represents  the  ana 

lytic  method 

,  t  the  trial  and  success 

method) 

Instructed  subjects 

Uninstructed 

subjects 

Puzzle  box 

Labyrinth 

1 
IS* 

Puzzle  box 

Labyrinth 

IS" 

•§ 
^ 

« 

1 

g 

1 

1 

V^ 

g 

CO 

:^ 

s 

:^ 

E^ 

^ 

^ 

e 

^ 

S 

1 

a 

0'  50" 

a 

7'    0" 

1 

a 

0'  50" 

a 

6'  50" 

2 

a 

1'  25" 

t 

7'    0" 

2 

a 

1'    3" 

a 

3'  45" 

3 

a 

1'  45" 

a 

13'  30" 

3 

a 

1'  10" 

a 

6'    0" 

4 

a 

2'  30" 

a 

18'  40" 

4 

a 

1'  30" 

a 

7'    0" 

5 

2'  15" 

ta 

9'    0" 

5 

a 

2'    0" 

t 

12'  30" 

6 

2'  30" 

a 

11'  30" 

6 

a 

2'  30" 

a 

14'  30" 

7 

2'  47" 

a 

5'  30" 

7 

t 

3'  35" 

t 

48'    0" 

8 

3'  25" 

a 

9'  25" 

8 

t 

5'  50" 

t 

38'    0" 

9 

5'    0" 

t 

3'  SO" 

9 

t 

13'  15"* 

t 

3'  62" 

10 

5'  40" 

a 

65'    0" 

11 

6'  45" 

a 

14'    0" 

Correlation  between  the  time  required  to  solve  the  puzzle  box  and  the  labyrinth 
(by  footrule  method).   R  .49. 
*  The  subject  was  disturbed  in  his  work  and  the  time  prolonged  in  consequence. 

Several  facts  are  clear,  as  far  as  conclusions  can  be 
drawn  from  these  rather  limited  data.  There  is  a  very 
wide  range  between  the  time  required  by  the  slowest 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  89 

and  the  fastest  in  both  cases,  the  ratio  being  8 :1  in  the 
case  of  the  puzzle  box  (excluding  one  doubtful  case), 
and  17:1  in  the  case  of  the  labyrinth.  The  individual 
diflferences  in  the  two  kinds  of  problem  correspond 
roughly,  the  coefficient  (R)  being  .49.  These  individ- 
ual differences  are  apparently  so  much  greater  than  the 
difference  which  may  be  produced  by  brief  instructions, 
such  as  were  given  in  this  experiment,  that  they  render 
the  effect  of  instructions  undistinguishable  as  far  as  the 
time  of  performance  is  concerned.  Instructions  also 
appear  to  have  had  little  effect  upon  the  method  used  ^ 
—  except  possibly  in  the  case  of  the  labyrinth. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  This  suggests  several 
tentative  conclusions  which  could  be  tested  by  a  fur- 
ther extension  of  the  experiment.  First,  the  instruc- 
tions apparently  were  not  followed,  due  to  the  fact 
either  that  some  of  the  subjects  were  not  accustomed 
to  use  the  analytic  method  with  this  type  of  subject 
matter  or  that  the  analytic  method  was  not  their 
method  in  general.  Second,  the  analytic  method,  when 
it  was  used,  did  not  in  several  cases  result  in  low  time, 
perhaps  because  it  was  not  properly  understood  or 
used,  or  simply  because  it  was  unaccustomed,  or  finally 
because  trying  to  follow  the  instructions  led  to  dis- 
traction and  confusion. 

Besides  testing  some  of  these  hypotheses,  further 
experimentation  might  be  carried  on  with  the  detec- 
tion of  logical  fallacies,  or  with  problems  in  physics, 
mathematics,  etc.,  making  due  allowance  for  differ- 
ences in  training. 


40  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  far  is  the  procedure  of  these  experiments  typical  of  the 
'       process  of  reasoning? 

2.  To  what  extent  is  the  nature  of  the  problem  dependent  upon 
the  kind  of  subject-matter  with  which  it  deals? 

S.  Show  with  illustrations  how  the  problems  in  this  experiment 
differ  from  the  problems  of  learning  in  the  preceding  experi- 
ments. 

4.  What  are  the  conditions  of  efficient  learning  in  this  type  of 
problem? 

5.  Do  they  differ  from  the  conditions  of  efficient  learning  in 
Experiments  Nos.  1  and  2? 

6.  Is  it  more  helpful  to  identify  or  to  distinguish  between  the 
various  types  of  learning? 

7.  Give  illustrations  of  problem-solving  in  school  activities. 

REFERENCES 

Dewey,  J.  How  We  Think.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1910. 

Lindley,  E.  H.  "Study  of  Puzzles";  in  American  Journal  of  Piy- 
ehology,  vol.  viii,  pp.  430-93.  ' 

Ruger,  H.  A.  Psychology  of  Effideney.  Columbia  University  Con- 
tributions to  Philosophy  and  Psychology  (1910),  Archives  of  Psy- 
chology, no.  15. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  Eklucational  Psychology,  vol.  il  Columbia 
University,  1913. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  41 


Experiment  No.  4 

TRANSFER   OF  TRAINING  IN  SENSORI-MOTOR 
LEARNING 

Problem.  It  is  important  to  determine,  not  only  to 
what  extent  and  by  what  methods  efficiency  in  various 
sorts  of  activities  may  be  increased  by  practice,  but 
also  to  what  extent  and  by  what  methods  the  efficiency 
gained  through  practice  in  one  activity  may  result  in 
increased  efficiency  in  other  activities  than  those  in 
which  the  practice  is  carried  on.  It  has  been  said  ^  that 
habits  cannot,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  be  transferred. 
The  question  cannot  thus  be  solved  by  definition,  how- 
ever, but  must  be  attacked  by  a  study  of  individual 
habits. 

Material  and  method.  In  this  experiment  we  shall 
make  a  further  study  of  the  sensori-motor  habit 
which  was  investigated  in  Experiment  No.  1.  The 
conditions  of  the  experiment  make  it  possible  to  change 
various  factors  in  the  problem  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
First,  we  may  use  a  difiFerent  card,  but  keep  the  mirror 
in  the  same  position.  Second,  we  may  keep  the  same 
card,  but  change  the  position  of  the  mirror.  Finally, 
we  may  change  the  position  of  both  the  mirror  and  the 
card. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  the  effect  of  these 
changes  is  due  to  the  general  nature  of  the  change  or 
*  See  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  chap.  xin. 


4t  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

to  some  accidental  feature  of  the  cards,  or  the  relation 
of  card  and  mirror,  there  will  be  two  sets  of  changes 
used,  each  of  which  consists  of  changes  of  the  general 
nature  outlined  above.  One  member  of  each  pair 
should  follow  Series  I,  and  the  other  Series  II. 

Series  I:  — 

Set  1.  Card  No.  1  with  cross  below,  mirror  parallel 
to  long  side  of  base.  (This  arrangement  was 
used  in  Experiment  No.  1,  and  is  not  to  be 
repeated  here.  Those  who  used  this  arrange- 
ment before  should  be  the  ones  to  complete 
this  first  series.) 

Set  2.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  below,  mirror  in  same 
position  as  in  Series  I,  1. 

Set  3.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  below,  mirror  parallel 
to  left  side  of  base. 

Set  4.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  toward  the  left  side  of 
base,  mirror  at  45  degrees  to  sides  of  the  base 
and  at  the  left  of  the  figure. 

Series  II:  — 

Set  1.  Card  No.  1  with  cross  below,  mirror  parallel 
to  left  side  of  base.  (Not  to  be  repeated  here. 
Those  who  used  this  arrangement  in  Experi- 
ment No.  1  to  complete  Series  II). 

Set  2.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  below,  mirror  in  same 
position  as  in  Series,  II,  1. 

Set  3.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  below,  mirror  parallel 
to  long  side  of  base. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  43 

Set  4.  Card  No.  2  with  cross  to  the  right  (away  from 
the  left  edge),  mirror  at  45  degrees  to  sides  of 
the  base  and  at  the  left  of  the  figure. 

Twenty-five  trials  should  be  made  with  each  of  the 
three  positions  of  the  cards  and  mirror,  as  in  Experi- 
ment No.  1. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  numerical  results  should 
be  presented  in  a  table  and  charted  as  in  Experiment 
No.  1.  The  curves  of  progress  of  the  foiu*  different 
series  should  be  brought  together  on  one  chart  for 
comparison. 

The  report  should  include  a  detailed  discussion  of 
the  relation  between  the  curves  of  the  different  series, 
and  of  the  kind  and  degree  of  transfer  which  appears. 
For  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  basis  for  explanation  of 
the  facts  of  transfer,  the  nature  of  the  change  which 
was  made  from  one  series  oi^  trials  to  another  should  be 
analyzed.  The  mechanism  of  the  apparatus  should  be 
studied,  and  the  relation  of  the  hand  movements  and 
of  the  apparent  movement  of  the  pen  in  the  various 
series  should  be  described. 

The  general  report  should  include  a  discussion  of  the 
same  matters  as  the  individual  reports  on  the  basis  of 
the  wider  range  of  material,  and  should  particularly 
trace  individual  differences. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  This  experiment  throws 
light  on  the  existence  and  the  conditions  of  transfer  of 
training  in  sensori-motor  learning.  It  does  not  purport 


44 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


to  demonstrate  that  there  is  transfer  of  other  sorts  of 
training,  or  to  indicate  what  the  character  or  condi- 
tions of  such  transfer  may  be.  It  is  desirable  to  keep 
this  in  mind  in  interpreting  the  results  of  experimental 


Time  la 
seconds 
160 


140 


120 


100 


80 


60 


40 


20 


L. 

r 

I 

1 

1 

i 

I 

'~ 

I 

^ 

[^1 

r 

T 

T 

J 

•          h- 

I 

\-      A 

r      . 

T       \^ 

^        ^ 

^ 

-  ^^      s 

V  t       s 

V    -^             -^i 

A      ^^^                      ^^ 

v,_ 

'"■~^ 

^^r^^tgkliji 

i::Ei::i::s 

Trials  6  10  15  20  25 

ObAbt  III.    LEARNIKO  CUBYBS  IN  EXPEBIMEMT  NO.  4 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS 


45 


investigations  of  transfer,  and  to  avoid  applying  their 
results  to  other  kinds  of  activities  than  those  which 
have  been  subjected  to  study.  It  is  probable  that  no 
one  or  two  f ormulee  will  explain  the  facts. 


Time  in 
seconds 
120 


100 


80 


60 


40 


ao 


, 

t 

I 

I 

V 

^^^ 

t  r 

I  I 

I  I 

4    4 

4 

-t  ^ 

i  \ 

V   ^ 

I     s^ 

^-t- 

K^^    t 

\7'K    V 

3   4 

*-                       --^N^ 

<"->.K"*--  — ,          "^  "~  "^ 'V '^  _<  ^            ^^  • 

^^     "4^ ■''^  — "''■■■:^?'4v  1 

L             "T^'^     * 

Trials 


10 


15 


ao 


25 


CfUXi  IV.    LBARinNa  CURVES  IN  EXFEBIUENT  NO.  4 
(SBCTION  A.    SERIES  II) 


The  two  charts,  Nos.  Ill  and  IV,  represent  graphi- 
cally the  average  results  from  two  sections  of  twelve 
and  eight  individuals  respectively.  Curve  No.  1  in 
each  case  is  taken  from  Experiment  No.  1.  The  results 


46  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

from  two  other  sections  are  similar  in  the  main  fea- 
tures, as  are  those  from  the  individual  learners.  The 
four  series  of  twenty-five  trials  are  numbered  to  corre- 
spond to  the  directions. 

If  we  had  only  the  results  which  are  represented  in 
one  or  the  other  of  these  two  figures  alone,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say  with  any  certainty  that  the  difference 
in  the  speed  of  performance  in  the  four  groups  of  trials 
was  due  in  any  measure  to  transfer.  It  might  be  due 
wholly  to  a  difference  in  the  difficulty  in  the  adjust- 
ment required  by  the  various  arrangements  of  cards 
and  mirror.  Some  such  difference  apparently  exists, 
since  the  corresponding  curves  differ  somewhat  in  the 
two  series.  This  same  difference  appears  also  in  the 
other  two  groups  of  subjects.  But,  in  spite  of  these 
differences  due  to  different  degrees  of  difficulty  in  the 
coordination  of  the  individual  sets  of  twenty-five 
trials,  there  are  likenesses  in  the  transition  from  each 
set  to  the  succeeding  sets  which  must  be  due  to  some 
more  general  factor.  That  the  difference  in  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  set  is  learned  is  not  due  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  adjustments  in  each  set  taken  alone  is 
clearly  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  the  adjustment 
in  Series  I,  2,  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  in  Series  II,  3; 
and  that  Series  I,  3,  is  identical  with  Series  II,  2.  By 
reference  to  the  charts  it  will  be  seen  that  precisely  the 
same  adjustment  is  made  rapidly  in  Series  I  and  slowly 
in  Series  II,  while  another  adjustment  is  made  slowly 
in  Series  I  and  rapidly  in  Series  II.  To  explain  these 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  47 

diflferences  there  must  be  some  general  factor,  based 
on  the  eflFect  which  carries  over  from  one  series  to  the 
next.  In  both  Series  I  and  II,  the  second  set  of  twenty- 
five  trials  is  made  much  more  rapidly  than  the  first. 
There  is  evidently  positive  transfer  from  Set  1  to  Set  2. 
In  both  cases  also  there  is  strong  negative  transfer 
from  Set  2  to  Set  3,  and  positive  transfer  again  from 
Set  3  to  Set  4. 

The  details  of  the  rest  of  the  formulation  of  results 
are  left  to  the  student.  The  interpretation  may  be 
made  along  the  following  lines.  Charts  should  be 
made  which  show  the  direction  of  the  hand  movements 
in  tracing  the  successive  lines  of  the  figure,  and  also  the 
apparent  direction  of  the  movements  of  the  pen  as  they 
are  observed  in  the  mirror.  From  a  study  of  these  dia- 
grams several  significant  facts  can  be  gained.  It  will  be 
found  that  in  one  case  the  hand  movements  in  two 
successive  sets  of  twenty-five  trials  are  identical,  fur- 
nishing an  identical  element.  Between  two  other  suc- 
cessive sets  the  apparent  direction  of  the  pen  move- 
ments as  seen  in  the  mirror  are  identical  —  another 
identical  element.  The  interesting  further  fact  will  be 
discovered  that  in  one  of  these  cases  the  transfer  is 
positive  and  in  the  other  negative.  An  identical  ele- 
ment can  either  facilitate  or  interfere.  In  another  case 
in  which  both  elements  change  there  is  marked  positive 
transfer. 

Let  us  next  examine  into  the  relationship  of  the  per- 
ceptual and  motor  elements  in  the  successive  series.  In 


48  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

this  respect  we  shall  find,  by  a  study  of  the  diagrams 
which  were  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  that 
there  are  certain  general  similarities  between  the  series 
between  which  there  is  positive  transfer,  and  differences 
between  those  between  which  there  is  negative  transfer. 
Every  movement  of  the  hand  or  apparent  movement  of 
the  pen  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  upward 
and  downward  and  the  right  and  left  directions.  There 
are  then  four  general  directions  possible:  Upward  to  the 
right  or  left,  and  downward  to  the  right  or  left.  Know- 
ing the  direction  (stated  thus  in  terms  of  the  quadrant 
in  which  it  falls)  of  each  hand  movement  and  apparent 
pen  movement,  the  hand  and  apparent  pen  movements 
may  be  described  as  similar  or  different  with  reference 
to  the  upward  and  downward  or  the  left  and  right  di- 
rections. Thus  the  two  movements  /*  and  \  are  simi- 
lar in  upward  and  downward  direction,  and  different  in 
right  and  left  direction.  Using  these  general  descrip- 
tive terms  the  relation  between  hand  and  apparent  pen 
movements  is  shown  in  the  following  tabular  state- 
ment:— 

Series  I  Series  II 

In  upward  In  right  In  upward  In  right 

and  downward      and  left  and  doumward   '  and  left 

direction  direction  direction  direction 

Set  1.  Same  Different  Different  Same 

Set  2.  Same  Different  Different  Same 

Set  S.  Different  Same  Same  Different 

Set  4.  Mixed.  First  three  strokes  Same  as  Series  I 

nearly  opposite  (different 

in  both  directions),  and  last 

three    strokes   in   nearly 
'  same  direction. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  49 

It  is  clear  that  the  relations  between  the  hand  move- 
ment and  the  apparent  pen  movement  in  Sets  1  and  2 
in  each  main  Series  (I  and  II)  are  of  the  same  genera 
natm-e,  though  of  course  the  directions  are  not  identi- 
cal, while  between  Sets  2  and  3  in  each  case  the  rela- 
tions are  radically  modified.  Set  4  is  a  special  case,  the 
relations  being  mixed,  and  probably  profits  from  all 
the  preceding  series. 

Let  the  student  work  out  these  facts  in  detail  and 
state  the  results  of  the  experiment  in  general  terms,  so 
as  to  indicate  the  relationship  of  the  new  coordination 
which  was  developed  in  the  first  series  to  that  which  is 
used  under  ordinary  conditions  of  life,  and  the  relation 
of  the  succeeding  coordinations  to  those  preceding. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  Many  profitable  vari- 
ations of  this  experiment  may  be  made.  The  order  of 
the  trial  series  may  be  changed  to  study  different  rela- 
tionshij^s  and  to  compare  the  difficulty  of  the  various 
arrangements.  An  interesting  test  would  be  to  place 
No.  4  first.  Entirely  new  positions  of  the  mirror  may 
be  tried  out.  The  practice  series  may  be  extended  so  as 
to  measure  greater  refinements  of  skill.  For  this  pur- 
pose some  more  exact  measure  of  accuracy  may  be 
used.  The  transfer  effect  in  the  case  of  children  in  this 
type  of  learning  may  be  compared  with  that  in  the  case 
of  adults.  Finally  other  experiments,  such  as  the  card- 
sorting  experiment  of  Bergstrom,^  or  a  substitution 

*  J.  E.  BergstrSm,  "The  Kelation  of  the  Interference  to  the 
Practice  Efifect  of  an  Association";  in  American  Journal  of  Psychol- 
ogy (1894),  vol.  VI.  pp.  433-42. 


50  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

test,  changing  the   symbols  at  intervals,  may  be 
made. 

QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  kinds  of  transfer  are  shown  in  this  experiment?  Explain 
any  differences  which  appeared  in  the  relation  of  the  different 
series. 

2.  Which  of  the  proposed  explanations  of  transfer  seems  best  to 
explain  the  transfer  found  in  this  experiment?  Consider,  for 
example,  identical  elements;  generalization,  or  the  discovery 
of  general  principles;  the  concept  of  method;  the  development 
of  ideals;  the  training  of  attention;  the  application  of  old 
habits  in  new  situations. 

3.  Give  illustrations  from  everyday  activities  of  facilitation  or 
interference  through  identity  of  movements  or  of  perceptual 
elements. 

4.  Would  you  expect  one  formula  to  explain  transfer  where 
different  mental  processes  are  involved? 

5.  Would  you  expect  transfer  to  be  greater  or  less  in  the  case  of 
higher  mental  processes? 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  transfer  in  the  training  given  in  the 
school  through  any  of  the  processes  mentioned  in  question  2 
that  you  think  can  bring  it  about. 

REFERENCES 

Colvin,  S.  S.  The  Learning  Process,  chaps,  xiv  to  xvi. 
Heck,  W.  H.  Mental  Discipline.  Second  edition,  1911. 
Thomdike,  E.  L.    Edticational  Psychology,  vol.  u. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  51 


Experiment  No.  5 

the  factors  in  memory  as  revealed  in 
rote  memorizing 

Problem.  The  purpose  of  this  experiment  is  to  de- 
termine the  factors  in  memorizing  which  are  of  impor- 
tance in  making  certain  methods  more  efficient  than 
others.  To  simpUfy  the  problem,  we  first  study  rote 
memorizing,  in  which  the  associations  of  meaning  are 
largely  absent  and  in  which  learning  depends  on  asso- 
ciations of  an  arbitrary  sort.  Nonsense  syllables  have 
been  found  to  be  most  useful  for  the  study  of  this  kind 
of  memorizing. 

The  first  problem  we  shall  attack  has  been  investi- 
gated for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  best  method 
of  presenting  words  in  the  teaching  of  spelling.^  The 
problem  as  it  has  been  studied  is  whether  it  is  best  to 
present  words  to  the  pupil  visually,  orally,  by  having 
him  speak  the  words  or  write  them,  or  by  some  combi- 
nation of  these  processes.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  re- 
peat these  tests  in  order  to  settle  the  question  in  this 
form,  since  it  has  been  sufficiently  well  demonstrated 
that  the  best  method  in  general  consists  in  a  combina- 
tion of  the  various  sorts  of  presentation.  The  question 
we  shall  study  is  how  far  the  most  advantageous  type 
of  presentation  is  dependent  on  individual  differences. 

^  See  Meumann  and  Lay,  in  the  References  at  the  end  of  the 
experiment. 


52  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

In  particular  we  shall  compare  oral  and  visual  presen- 

tation. 

^  The  second  problem  is  concerned  with  the  value  of 

artificial  associations  in  learning  material  which  has  no 

inherent  associations  of  meaning.  In  other  words,  we 

shall  study  the  value  of  mnemonic  devices. 

The  third  problem  concerns  the  effect  of  the  degree 
of  thoroughness  with  which  material  is  learned  upon 
the  permanence  of  the  associations. 

The  fourth  problem  concerns  the  effect  of  attempt- 
ing to  recall  at  intervals  during  memorizing. 

Material  and  method.  The  series  of  syllables  to  be 
memorized  are  printed  on  cards  which,  except  in  oral 
presentation,  are  shown  in  turn  to  the  subject  by  the 
experimenter.  The  lists  of  syllables  used  are  given  in 
the  Appendix.  The  set  of  cards  is  held  on  the  table  fac- 
ing the  subject  and  the  successive  cards  are  exposed  by 
shifting  the  cards  one  at  a  time  from  the  front  of  the 
pack  to  the  back.  The  rate  of  presentation  is  one  in 
two  seconds,  and  is  governed  by  the  beat  of  a  metro- 
nome. The  series  should  be  presented  without  a  pause 
between  the  trials  until  the  series  is  learned. 

Unless  otherwise  indicated,  the  method  is  to  con- 
tinue to  present  a  series  until  the  subject  is  able  to 
anticipate  each  syllable  before  it  appears.  The  series  is 
then  considered  to  be  learned  to  the  threshold.  The 
number  of  repetitions  should  be  recorded  by  the  exper- 
imenter. The  number,  including  the  final  presentation 
which  demonstrates  the  fact  that  the  series  is  learned, 
measures  inversely  the  rate  of  learning. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  53 

1.  In  order  to  determine  individual  diflPerences  in 
the  relative  ease  with  which  series  of  syllables  are 
learned  by  oral  and  visual  presentation,  let  Series  I  be 
presented  by  pronouncing  the  syllables  distinctly  at  a 
two-second  interval,  governed  by  the  metronome  beat. 
Since  the  experimenter  becomes  familiar  with  the  syl- 
lables in  oral  presentation,  a  second  series.  No.  la,  is 
provided,  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  oral  presentation 
to  the  second  subject.  Series  II  may  be  presented 
visually  as  described  above. 

2.  The  relative  value  of  the  methods  which  are  to  be 
examined  in  the  remaining  parts  of  the  experiment  ^ill 
be  studied  by  dividing  the  class  into  two  sections,  and 
having  one  section  proceed  by  one  method  and  the 
other  by  the  second  method.  The  division  of  the  class 
is  to  be  made  in  each  case  by  letting  one  member  of 
each  pair  use  one  method,  and  the  other  member  the 
other  method.  The  performance  of  each  group  may  be 
judged  by  comparison  with  their  performance  in  the 
first  part  of  the  experiment,  in  which  all  pursued  the 
same  method. 

In  this  part  of  the  experiment  we  shall  compare  the 
eflficiency  of  learning  in  which  no  special  device  is  used, 
with  learning  according  to  the  directions  given  below. 
Series  III  should  be  used.  Those  who  are  to  use  the 
uninstructed  method  should  learn  by  the  ordinary 
visual  presentation,  and  should  not  read  the  following 
paragraph. 

Many  devices  have  been  used  to  assist  the  formation 


54  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

of  associations  which  are  devoid  of  meaning.  Such 
methods  are  of  use  in  memorizing  dates,  names,  street 
and  telephone  numbers,  etc.  The  common  feature  of 
such  mnemonic  devices  is  an  artificial  system  of  asso- 
ciations which  forms  a  framework  or  skeleton  into 
which  the  elements  to  be  learned  may  be  set.  For 
example,  in  the  present  case  the  alphabet  furnishes 
such  a  framework.  For  one  who  thinks  easily  in  visual 
images,  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  thought  of 
as  arrayed  in  serial  order,  in  a  series  of  columns,  or  in 
some  other  convenient  arrangement.  As  each  syllable 
is  presented,  it  may  be  placed  in  this  framework  ac- 
cording to  the  initial  letter.  Another  method  is  to 
imagine  the  syllables  to  be  arranged  in  groups  —  as  in 
three  groups  of  five.  Each  syllable  of  each  group  could 
then  be  placed  and  associated  with  its  place.  For  one 
who  thinks  more  readily  in  terms  of  auditory  images, 
some  form  of  sound  associations  may  be  used.  For 
example,  the  initial  letters  of  groups  of  successive 
syllables  could  be  associated  according  to  their  sound, 
and  perhaps  related  to  some  word.  Rhythm  is  very 
helpful  in  forming  auditory  associations  and  should  be 
taken  advantage  of.  Some  will  find  it  more  advanta- 
geous to  group  by  threes,  others  by  fours,  or  fives. 

3.  The  purpose  of  the  third  part  of  the  experiment 
is  to  compare  the  permanence  of  memory  of  a  series 
of  syllables  which  are  learned  to  the  threshold,  as  de- 
scribed above,  with  the  memory  of  a  series  learned  be- 
yond the  threshold.   Learning  beyond  the  threshold  is 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  55 

to  be  accomplished  by  the  subject's  repeating  the  series 
orally  five  times  after  the  threshold  has  been  reached. 
The  syllables  should  be  spoken  in  a  low  tone  and  the 
experimenter  should  move  away  to  avoid  becoming 
familiar  with  the  series.  The  permanence  of  memory 
of  both  the  series  which  have  been  learned  beyond  the 
threshold,  and  those  which  have  not,  is  to  be  tested 
by  the  so-called  saving  method.  Let  the  series  be  re- 
learned  on  the  following  day  by  the  same  method 
of  presentation  as  before,  and  the  difference  between 
the  number  of  presentations  necessary  on  the  two  oc- 
casions found.  This  difference  represents  the  saving 
effected,  and  the  saving  is  a  measure  of  the  perma- 
nence of  memory.  The  class  is  to  be  divided  as  before, 
one  half  using  one  method  and  the  other  half  the  other 
method.  Series  IV  should  be  used. 

4.  The  fourth  comparison  to  be  made  is  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  the  value,  as  a  method  in  mem- 
orizing, of  attempting  to  recall  the  series  before  the 
threshold  has  been  reached.  Let  half  the  class  as  before 
learn  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  other  half  proceed 
as  follows.  Make  an  estimate,  on  the  basis  of  the  re- 
sults of  the  work  already  done,  of  the  number  of  ex- 
posures which  are  likely  to  be  needed  to  learn  this,  the 
fifth  series.  When  half  the  estimated  number  of  pres- 
entations have  been  made,  stop  for  a  moment  and 
attempt  to  recall  the  series  silently.  Present  the  series 
and  test  the  memory  by  the  method  of  anticipation  as 
before.  Continue  to  attempt  to  recall  the  series  after 


«6  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

each  presentation.  The  permanence  of  memory  should 
be  tested  as  in  Part  8. 

In  all  but  the  oral  presentation,  the  experimenter 
should  avoid  gaining  any  familiarity  with  the  syllables 
of  the  series.  The  cards  may  be  identified  by  the  nimi- 
bers  on  the  back.  The  subject  should  make  no  com- 
ments which  would  indicate  to  the  experimenter  what 
the  syllables  are. 

After  each  series  has  been  learned,  the  subject 
should  immediately  make  a  note  of  any  observations 
he  may  have  made  concerning  the  method  by  which 
the  learning  took  place.  He  should  make  note  particu- 
larly of  any  devices  which  are  used  in  the  learning. 

Treatment  of  results.  In  the  individual  reports  the 
obvious  comparisons  suggested  in  the  description  of 
the  method  of  procedure  should  be  made  and  dis- 
cussed. The  numerical  results  should  be  presented 
clearly  in  the  form  of  a  table.  The  questions  and  topics 
given  below  should  be  considered.  In  the  general  re- 
port these  comparisons  should  be  generalized  and,  in 
addition,  individual  differences  in  (a)  the  average 
number  of  presentations  necessary  for  learning,  (b)  the 
kind  of  presentation  or  method  which  is  most  favorable 
to  learning,  (c)  the  permanence  of  memory  and  the 
relation  of  degree  of  permanence  to  the  rate  of  learning 
should  be  given.  These  facts  should  be  displayed  in 
appropriate  tables. 


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EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  IV.  NUMBER  OF  PRESENTATIONS  NECESSARY 
FOR  EACH  INDIVIDUAL  OF  A  SECOND  GROUP  IN 
THREE  SERIES 


Series 

I 

Series  II 

Series 

III 

and  la 

Individual 

Audi- 
tory 

Visual 

Unin- 
structed 

Difference 

In. 

struded 

Differ- 
ence 

A 

13 

8 

9 

+  1 

B 

15 

10 

14 

+  4 

^  ^ 

C 

16 

18 

9 

-  9 

, , 

D 

21 

18 

11 

-  7 

E 

22 

16 

, , 

15 

-  1 

F 

23 

10 

8 

-  2 

G 

23 

27 

6 

-21 

H 

24 

14 

13 

-  1 

I 

28 

18 

28 

+10 

J 

32 

17 

a 

+  4 

K 

40 

34 

20 

-14 

L 

49 

17 

is 

-  2 

M 

61 

48 

33 

-15 

N 

78 

36 

19 

-17 

Average... 

31.8 

20.8 

15.6 

-3.1 

16.0 

-7.5 

Results  of  the  experiment.  Specimen  results  from 
this  experiment  are  shown  in  Tables  III  and  IV.  Not 
much  reliance  can  be  placed  on  some  of  the  results, 
since  some  of  the  members  of  the  class  failed  to  follow 
instructions  carefully.  There  are  some  fairly  clear  out- 
standing facts,  however. 

By  reference  to  both  groups  it  appears  that  the  series 
were  learned  more  quickly  by  visual  than  by  auditory 
presentation  by  the  majority  of  the  subjects.  Only 
individuals  C,  D,  E,  I,  and  M  of  Table  III,  and  C  and 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  89 

G  of  Table  TV,  learned  more  rapidly  by  auditory 
presentation.  While  the  visual  presentation  proved  to 
be  the  better  on  the  average  and  for  the  large  major- 
ity of  the  cases,  the  exceptional  individuals  must 
not  be  overlooked  nor  looked  upon  as  abnormal. 

Apparently  the  instructions  did  not  have  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  rapidity  of  learning.  While  the  in- 
structed group  of  Table  IV  gained  over  twice  as  much 
in  Series  III  over  Series  II  as  did  the  uninstructed 
group,  in  Table  III  there  was  no  appreciable  gain  by 
either  group.  This  may  be  due  to  several  reasons. 
There  was  some  indication  that  the  uninstructed  group 
hit  upon  some  of  the  devices  mentioned  in  the  instruc- 
tions independently.  The  extent  of  individual  and  ac- 
cidental differences  may  have  covered  up  real  differ- 
ences due  to  instructions.  The  instructions  may  not 
have  been  of  the  best.  More  prolonged  practice  may 
be  necessary  to  profit  by  instructions.  These  possible 
explanations  should  be  experimentally  tested  before  it 
is  concluded  that  instructions  are  of  negligible  impor- 
tance. This  furnishes  problems  for  further  extension 
of  this  experiment. 

Learning  beyond  the  threshold  evidently  produces 
greater  permanence  of  learning,  as  is  to  be  expected. 
The  extent  to  which  learning  should  be  carried  beyond 
the  threshold  is  evidently  to  be  determined  by  the 
puj*pose  in  learning,  —  by  the  degree  of  permanence 
that  is  desired. 

While  attempting  to  recall  during  learning  did  not. 


00  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

according  to  the  figures  of  Table  III,  lower  the  number 
of  presentations  necessary  in  comparison  with  continu- 
ous presentation,  it  did  produce  somewhat  greater 
permanence.  The  results  from  other  groups  commonly 
come  out  in  favor  of  the  method  of  attempting  to  recall 
at  intervals,  both  in  the  number  of  presentations 
necessary  for  first  learning  and  for  relearning. 

The  averages  in  the  last  two  columns  of  Table  III 
bring  to  light  individual  differences  in  rapidity  of  first 
learning  and  of  relearning,  and  in  the  correlation  be- 
tween rapidity  of  learning  and  permanence.  In  order 
to  make  the  inspection  of  the  table  easier  the  scores 
may  be  arranged  in  ascending  order.  This  is  done  in 
Table  V.  Very  large  individual  differences  appear 
both  in  the  first  learning  and  the  relearning,  the  ratio 
of  the  lowest  to  the  highest  score  being  about  1  to  6 
and  1  to  7  respectively.  This  is  a  very  large  difference 
among  individuals  of  a  group  who  are  rather  homog- 
enous in  training  and  general  ability. 

The  calculation  of  a  correlation  coefficient  is  not  in 
this  case  a  very  profitable  proceeding  as  a  means  of 
measuring  the  degree  of  correlation,  since  the  group 
includes  several  classes  of  cases,  each  characterized  by 
a  different  relationship  of  speed  of  learning  to  reten- 
tion. As  a  very  rough  method  of  indicating  the  degree 
of  correlation  in  general,  however,  we  may  average  the 
relearning  scores  of  the  top,  middle,  and  bottom  thirds 
of  the  whole  group,  classified  on  the  basis  of  the  first 
learning  scores.  The  averages  of  the  relearning  scores 


THE  LEARNING   PROCESS 


61 


TABLE  V.  SCORES  IN  FIRST  LEARNING  AND  IN 
RELEARNING 


First  learning 

Releaming 

A 

6.8 
9.8 
11.0 
11.4 
11.8 
12.2 

12.7 
13.6 
15.2 
15.6 
17.0 
18.6 

19.0 
20.2 
25.8 
31.0 
34.2 
37.6 

2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 

4.0 
2.5 
1.5 
5.0 
6.5 
6.0 

2.0 
10.0 
3.5 
2.0 
5.5 
4.0 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

Average,  3.25 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

Average,  4.1 

M 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

R 

Average,  4.5 

show  a  slight  tendency  to  increase  with  the  increase  in 
the  first-learning  scores,  indicating  a  very  slight  ten- 
dency for  the  learning  of  rapid  learners  to  be  more 
retentive  than  that  of  slow  learners  —  so  far  as  this 
test  goes.  But  the  slightness  of  the  correlation  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  if  the  highest  releaming  scores 
of  the  middle  and  highest  thirds  were  exchanged, 
namely,  the  6  and  10,  the  averages  of  these  groups 
would  be  4.7  and  3.5  respectively. 

A  much  more  significant  mode  of  examining  such  an 
array  as  this  is  to  note  the  kind  of  cases  which  are  rep- 


62  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

resented.  It  is  apparent,  after  a  moment's  inspection, 
that  there  are  those  of  high,  medium,  and  low  reten- 
tiveness  among  the  fast,  the  mediimi,  and  the  slow 
learners.  We  cannot  accept  the  traditional  view  that 
slow  learners  are  more  apt  to  be  retentive  than  rapid 
learners.  So  far  as  there  is  a  general  rule  the  latter 
seems  to  hold.  But  no  one  type  of  correspondence 
appears  to  be  general. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  This  experiment  may- 
be extended  by  varying  the  conditions  and  the  material 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  effect  of  instructions  may  be 
studied  more  fully,  as  already  suggested.  The  effect  of 
learning  beyond  the  threshold  on  permanence,  and  the 
effect  of  attempting  to  recall  on  both  speed  and  perma- 
nence may  be  studied  by  having  the  same  individual 
use  the  various  methods  with  different  series.  All  the 
different  devices  may  be  tested  with  series  of  words,  or 
with  vocabulary  pairs  instead  of  with  nonsense  sylla- 
bles. In  such  case  the  variability  in  the  diflBculty  of 
material  will  be  much  greater.  The  effect  of  distribu- 
tion of  the  repetitions  may  be  studied  by  taking  series 
of  the  same  length  or  greater  length,  and  making  a  few 
repetitions  of  each  series  at  a  sitting  instead  of  carrying 
them  to  the  threshold  at  one  sitting.  The  effect  of 
distribution  on  permanence  is  particularly  important. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  6S 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Are  any  parts  of  the  series  learned  before  the  rest?  If  so,  ac- 
count for  the  fact. 

2.  What  accessory  devices,  if  any,  are  used  to  aid  learning?  Do 
the  stimuli  arouse  any  form  of  imagery?  If  so,  what  form  or 
forms?  What  function  does  the  imagery  have,  if  any,  in  the 
learning  process? 

8.  Is  it  correct  to  assume  that  the  imagery  employed  belongs  ex- 
clusively to  the  sense  through  which  the  stimulus  was  given? 

4.  Is  there  a  definite  point  at  which  memorizing  vaay  be  said  to  be 
absolute  or  complete?  If  so,  how  may  it  be  described?  If  not, 
how  may  degrees  of  learning  be  described? 

5.  Can  the  effect  of  learning  in  the  early  stages  always  be  meas- 
ured? Why  does  command  of  the  material  sometimes  seem  to 
deteriorate  in  the  early  stages? 

6.  An  examination  of  recruits  in  Germany  showed  that  they 
could  recall  little  of  what  they  learned  in  schooL  How  is  this 
result  to  be  interpreted? 

7.  Give  illustrations  of  the  value  of  learning  of  various  degrees  of 
completeness. 

8.  Draw  conclusions  regarding  the  various  factors  or  methods 
studied. 

9.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  formation  of  wrong  associations? 

10.  Is  rote  memorizing  in  the  school  justified?   Under  what  cir- 
cumstances? 

REFERENCES 

Colvin,  S.  S.    The  Learning  Process,  chap.  xi. 

Ebbinghaus,  H.  Memory.  Tr.  by  Ruger.  Teachers  College  Pub- 
lications. 

Lange,  R.   Prahtisches  Handbuch  filr  den  Rechtschreibunterricht. 

Lay,  W.   Fuhrer  durch  den  Rechtschreibunterricht. 

Meumann,  E.  Psychology  of  Learning  and  Vorlesungen  zur  Ein- 
fuhrung  in  die  Experimentalle  Pddogojik,  vol.  n. 

Whipple,  G.  M.   Maniud  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  p.  356. 


64  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  6 

MEMORY   FOR  SENSE  MATERIAL 

Problem.  The  problem  of  this  experiment  is  to  find 
the  best  method  of  memorizing  sense  material.  Some 
of  the  same  alternative  methods  tested  in  the  experi- 
ment on  rote  memory  might  also  be  tried  with  logical 
memory.  For  example,  one  could  determine  the  value 
of  attempting  to  repeat  the  selection  which  was  being 
learned  before  the  memorizing  was  complete,  or  one 
might  study  the  effect  of  memorizing  beyond  the 
threshold.  In  this  experiment,  however,  but  one  phase 
of  the  problem  will  be  attacked.  The  aim  will  be  to 
determine  whether  it  is  better  to  memorize  by  the  so- 
called  part  method,  or  the  whole  method.  In  using 
the  part  method,  the  learner  memorizes  a  sentence  or 
stanza  or  other  small  part  at  a  time.  In  using  the  whole 
method  one  memorizes  by  reading  the  whole  selection, 
or  a  fairly  large  part  of  the  selection  at  one  time.  In- 
stead of  using  the  whole  method  in  the  strict  sense,  it 
will  be  more  useful  to  modify  it  by  dwelling  somewhat 
longer  upon  the  more  diflScult  parts  of  the  passage  after 
they  have  been  discovered.  This  is  sometimes  called 
the  combined  method. 

Material  and  method.  In  this  experiment  each  sub- 
ject may  work  alone.  While  the  memorizing  need  not 
be  done  in  the  laboratory,  it  should  be  done  during  the 
laboratory  period  in  order  to  have  the  time  of  day  uni- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  eS 

form.  In  order  that  the  material  which  is  used  by  the 
class  may  be  miiform,  copies  of  a  poem  have  been 
prepared.  The  selection  is  printed  in  the  Appendix. 

In  order  to  compare  the  two  methods  in  question, 
the  simple  procedure  which  is  likely  to  suggest  itself 
at  first  thought  will  not  suffice.  This  method  would  be 
to  spend  first  a  certain  amount  of  time  in  memorizing 
with  one  method,  and  then  an  equal  amount  of  time 
using  the  second  method,  and  compare  the  amount 
learned  by  the  two  methods.  The  difficulty  with  this 
procedure  is  that  there  is  a  decided  improvement  in 
memorizing  with  practice,  which  operates  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  second  method  used.  This  practice 
effect  may  be  in  a  measure  offset  by  using  first  method 
number  1,  then  number  2,  and  finally  number  1,  and 
averaging  the  rates  of  learning  during  the  first  and 
third  periods  by  method  number  1.  Then,  to  make 
sure  that  the  procedure  is  fair  to  both  methods,  still 
another  precaution  may  be  taken;  viz.,  to  let  one  half 
the  class  use  the  part  method  first  and  the  other  half 
the  whole  method.  In  the  following  plan,  let  A  repre- 
sent one  of  each  pair  of  students  working  together,  and 
B  the  other:  — 

A  B 

Part  method  —     40  minutes  Whole  method  —  40  minutes 

Whole  method  —  80  minutes  Part  method  —     80  minutes 

Part  method  —     40  minutes  Whole  method  —  40  minutes 

The  work  should  be  done  in  forty-minute  periods, 
and  should  be  distributed  over  two  days.  The  whole 


66  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

poem  should  be  read  once  by  all  to  get  the  general 
course  of  thought. 

The  material  which  is  being  memorized  should  be 
studied  until  it  can  be  repeated  once  without  error,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  learner  can  tell.  When  the  part 
method  is  used,  work  should  be  continued  until  all  the 
parts  can  be  repeated  continuously,  and  not  merely  as 
separate  parts.  If  the  material  which  is  being  studied 
is  not  quite  finished  at  the  end  of  the  allotted  time,  the 
period  may  be  extended.  The  efficiency  of  the  methods 
is  to  be  measured  by  the  number  of  lines  per  hour 
which  can  be  learned  by  their  use.  The  subject  should 
estimate,  when  using  the  whole  method,  the  number 
of  lines  he  can  learn  in  the  allotted  time;  but,  if  this 
amount  is  not  learned,  he  should  continue  either  then 
or  on  the  next  day  until  it  is  learned.  K  considerable 
time  remains,  he  should  learn  another  section. 

In  order  to  compare  the  efficacy  of  the  two  methods, 
with  reference  to  permanence,  the  parts  learned  should 
be  relearned  at  the  end  of  a  week  and  the  amount  of 
saving  effected  should  be  tabulated.  Each  part  should 
be  relearned  by  the  same  method  that  was  used  in  first  * 
learning. 

Treatment  of  results.  Each  student  should  describe 
in  his  report  the  order  in  which  he  used  the  methods, 
the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  study  by  each  method, 
and  should  calculate  and  report  the  number  of  lines 
per  hour  learned  by  each  method.  The  amount  of  im- 
provement, if  any,  from  the  first  to  third  period  should 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  fl7 

be  calculated.  The  topics  and  questions  given  below 
should  also  be  discussed. 

In  the  general  report,  a  table  should  be  given  which 
shows  the  lines  learned  per  hour  by  each  student  in  the 
various  periods  and  by  the  two  methods.  Those  who 
begin  with  the  same  method  should  be  grouped  to- 
gether. The  averages  necessary  to  bring  out  the  com- 
parison of  the  two  methods  should  then  be  calculated. 
The  practice  effect  should  also  be  calculated.  A  com- 
parison of  the  degree  of  retention  in  the  case  of  the 
fast  and  of  the  slow  learners  may  be  made. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  tabulated  results  of 
this  experiment  for  one  section  of  nineteen  are  given  in 
Table  VI.  After  the  somewhat  detailed  analysis  of 
some  of  the  preceding  experiments,  the  student  may  be 
left  with  a  few  indications  of  the  outstanding  facts  in 
this  table.  He  may  then  elaborate  the  details. 

It  appears,  contrary  to  the  principle  which  is  gen- 
erally accepted,  that  the  part  method  gives  better 
results  on  the  average,  and  in  the  case  of  the  majority 
of  the  individuals,  than  does  the  whole  method.  In 
some  sections  the  whole  method  gives  better  results  on 
the  average,  but  there  are  still  some  individuals  who 
do  better  with  the  part  method.  This  so  far  as  first 
learning  is  concerned.  In  the  case  of  permanence  of 
memory,  as  we  should  expect,  the  whole  method  makes 
a  better  showing,  though  even  here  some  individuals 
do  better  by  the  part  method.  Let  the  student  weigh 
the  statement  that  we  should  expect  the  whole  method 


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70  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

to  be  superior  for  permanence  of  memory,  and  argue 
for  or  against  it. 

It  is  possible  that  previous  practice  with  the  part 
method  outweighs  the  inherent  advantages  of  the 
whole  method.  This  can  be  tested  by  inquiring  into 
the  previous  habits  of  memorizing  of  the  individuals 
who  made  better  time  by  the  whole  and  the  part 
methods  respectively;  and  by  having  some  individuals, 
who  do  better  by  the  part  method,  carry  on  more  ex- 
tended practice  with  the  whole  method  to  find  out 
whether  the  advantage  is  reversed. 

The  correlation  between  speed  of  ^rst  memorizing 
and  permanence  of  memory  may  be  examined,  as  in 
the  experiment  with  nonsense  syllables.  In  the  group 
under  examination  the  same  rule  holds.  While,  in 
general,  the  rapid  learners  releam  more  quickly,  some 
of  them  relearn  slowly  and  some  of  the  slow  learners 
relearn  quickly. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  This  experiment  may 
be  extended  by  carrying  on  more  prolonged  tests  with 
a  variety  of  materials;  by  experimenting  with  different 
amoimts  which  are  taken  as  sections  to  be  learned  as  a 
whole  —  particularly  with  reference  to  the  individual- 
ity of  the  learner  and  the  diflSculty  of  the  subject  mat- 
ter; and  by  making  the  test  with  children  of  different 
ages  under  school  conditions. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  71 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What,  in  psychological  terms,  are  the  respective  advantages  of 
the  two  methods? 

2.  Do  the  objective  results  coincide  with  your  experience  in  mem- 
orizing? If  not,  discuss  the  discrepancy. 

5.  If  there  was  improvement  with  practice,  try  to  explain  on  the 
basis  of  introspection  the  cause  of  the  improvement. 

4.  Give  directions  for  efficient  memorizing. 

B.  How  far  do  you  think  memory  in  general  can  be  improved? 

6.  What  are  the  limitations  upon  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  a  short  experiment  like  this  when  applied  to  the  general 
conduct  of  mental  work? 

7.  Is  there  a  contrast  between  the  fast  and  the  slow  memorizers 
in  their  preference  for  the  two  methods? 

8.  Which  method  would  be  more  likely  to  improve  rapidly  under 
intensive  training? 

9.  Does  this  contrast  between  the  methods  of  memorizing  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word  apply  to  study  in  the  broader  sense? 

REFERENCES 

Ebbinghaus,  H.  Memory.  Tr.  by  Ruger.  Teachers  College  Pub- 
lications. 

Meumann,  E.  The  Psychology  of  Learning.  Tr.  by  Baird.  Ap- 
pleton. 

Watt,  H.  J.  Economy  and  Training  of  the  Memory. 


CHAPTER  III 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  THE  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 
Experiment  No.  7 

EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF 
HANDWRITING 

Problem :  Analysis  of  the  writing  movement.  As  in 
the  study  of  the  learning  process  we  began  with  a 
motor  type  of  learning,  so  in  the  study  of  the  psychol- 
ogy of  the  school  subjects,  we  may  begin  with  one 
which  is  predominantly  motor  in  character.  Such  a 
subject  is  handwriting.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
observer  the  writing  process  is  a  motor  coordination. 
That  is,  it  consists  in  a  complex  organized  movement 
which  is  made  up  by  the  cooperation  of  a  number  of 
simpler  movements.  These  simpler  movements  work 
together  simultaneously  in  the  production  of  the  com- 
plex movement;  and  at  each  successive  moment  one 
particular  combination  of  movements  is  followed  by  a 
different  combination.  In  short,  the  simpler  move- 
ments work  together  harmoniously,  both  simultane- 
ously and  in  succession.  This  experiment  will  consist 
in  an  objective  analysis  of  the  writing  coordination 
into  several  of  its  simpler  components. 

Material  and  method.  The  analysis  of  the  move- 
ment into  the  contributory  movement  of  the  arm  (in- 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    73 

eluding  movements  about  the  elbow  and  shoulder,  the 
wrist,  and  the  fingers,  may  be  made  by  means  of  an 
adaptation  of  the  apparatus  used  in  Experiment  No.  1. 
In  place  of  the  handle,  used  in  the  former  experiment, 
there  is  a  rubber  band  which  is  to  be  placed  around  the 
palm  of  the  hand  in  front  of  the  thumb  and  just  back 
of  the  third  joints  of  the  fingers.  The  point  of  at- 
tachment with  the  rod  which  transmits  the  hand  move- 
ment to  the  levers  should  be  situated  at  the  highest 
point  of  the  band.  The  tracer  record  of  the  hand  is 
reversed,  but  may  be  compared  with  the  writing  by 
turning  it  upside  down. 

The  experiment  may  be  carried  on  as  follows:  First, 
place  the  two  sheets  of  paper  for  the  written  and  the 
tracer  record  with  the  edges  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
apparatus,  and  adjust  the  tracer  so  that  it  is  comfort- 
able and  follows  the  movements  of  the  hand  closely. 
Now  take  a  record  of  several  words,  written  in  one's 
ordinary  speed  and  manner  of  writing.  To  make  com- 
parison easy,  the  same  sentence  may  be  written  by  all; 
for  example,  "  A  quick  brown  fox  jumps  over  the  lazy 
dog."  Compare  the  tracer  record  and  the  writing  so  as 
to  answer  the  following  questions:  — 

1.  To  what  component  (element)  of  the  total  writ- 
ing-movement does  the  arm  and  hand  contribute 
most?  To  what  element  do  the  finger  movements 
contribute.'' 

2.  To  what  extent  does  the  arm  contribute  in  the 
formation  of  the  letters.?  In  this  respect  the  indi- 


74  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

vidual  differences  among  the  members  of  the 
class  should  be  particularly  noticed. 
3.  Distinguish  the  movement  at  the  wrist  from  the 
movement  at  the  elbow  or  shoulder,  if  such  dis- 
tinction is  shown  by  the  record.  Make  another 
record,  this  time  writing  with  as  little  finger 
movement  as  possible. 

a.  To  what  extent  were  you  able  to  exclude  the 
finger  movements? 

b.  What  modification,  if  any,  was  made  in  the 
appearance  of  the  writing  by  the  difference  in 
the  type  of  movement? 

Make  a  record  with  the  tracer  of  a  series  of  ten  or 
more  straight  up-and-down  strokes  to  resemble  a  series 
of  saw  teeth.  Then  make  a  series  of  dots  on  the  paper 
on  which  the  writing  is  done  in  the  same  relative  po- 
sition as  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  up-and- 
down  strokes  previously  made,  and  make  another 
record  with  the  tracer  of  a  series  of  up-and-down 
strokes,  using  the  dots  as  limiting  points.  Compare 
the  tracer  records  in  the  two  cases  and  draw  con- 
clusions. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  results  of  this  experiment 
are  not  subject  to  exact  quantitative  treatment.  The 
relative  amount  of  hand  movement  used  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  letters  may  be  estimated  by  comparing  the 
height  of  the  letters  themselves  with  the  height  of  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  tracer  record.  The  same 
may  be  done  for  the  "  saw  tooth  "  movement.  In  de- 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    75 

termining  individual  differences,  the  records  may  be 
put  into  classes  roughly  divided  under  such  rubrics  as 
little,  medium,  and  much,  —  as  for  example  in  deter- 
mining individual  differences  in  the  amount  of  arm 
movement  used.  The  correlation  between  the  amount 
of  finger  movement  and  the  quality  of  the  writing  may 
be  worked  out. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  more  significant 
results  of  this  experiment  cannot  be  expressed  in  tabu- 
lar form.  The  report  of  such  an  experiment  consists  in 
the  reproduction  and  interpretation  of  typical  records. 
Three  such  records  are  shown  in  Figures  4  and  5.  The 
following  points  should  be  observed  and  discussed  in 
the  report:  — 

It  is  evident  there  is  wide  individual  difference  in  the 
amount  of  arm  movement  in  comparison  to  finger 
movement  in  the  three  cases  whose  records  are  before 
us.  In  the  case  in  which  the  finger  movement  is  least 
in  amount  there  is  still  a  certain  amount,  particularly 
in  the  earlier  words  of  a  sentence.  It  is  of  importance 
to  note  that  the  additional  amount  of  arm  movement 
which  can  be  introduced  voluntarily  is  limited.  Long- 
established  habits  are  not  quickly  changed. 

The  tracer  record  is  shorter  than  the  written  line  in 
all  cases,  but  more  so  in  some  cases  than  in  others.  Why 
is  this?  It  is  not  due  to  the  failure  of  the  pen  to  follow 
the  movements  of  the  hand  attachment.  To  work  out 
this  mechanical  problem  the  various  parts  of  the  hand 
and  arm  should  be  diagramed.  The  solution  of  the 


76 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


problem  throws  light  on  some  of  the  details  of  the 
movement. 
The  slope  of  the  line  of  writing  and  the  slant  of  the 


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0^  p*>tk  (WttxA^^rx-VvvAvj^^^^ 


Fifl.  4.    TRACER  RECORD   FROM  A  WRITER  WHO  USES  LITTLE  (A) 
AND  MUCH  (B)  ARM  MOVEMENT 

a.  Written  in  the  writer's  usual  manner 

b.  Written  in  an  attempt  to  empliaaize  arm  movement 

individual  letters  is  not  always  the  same  in  the  tracer 
record  and  the  writing  itself.  Sometimes  the  slope  of 
the  tracer  record  varies  from  word  to  word.    What 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS   7T 

adjustment  of  hand,  arm,  or  fingers  explain  these  vari- 
ations? 

The  three  records  used  for  illustration  are  not 
enough  to  f(M*m  the  basis  for  conclusions  regarding  the 


Fio.  6.    TRACER  RECORD   FROM  A  WRITER  WHO  USES  A  MEDIUM 
AMOUNT  OF  ARM  MOVEMENT 

a.  Written  in  the  writer's  usual  numner 

b.  Written  in  an  attempt  to  emphasize  arm  moTement 


relation  of  the  character  of  the  coordination  to  the 
character  of  the  written  product,  though  they  offer 
suggestions  on  this  point.  We  have  been  taught  to  as- 


78  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

sociate  arm  movement  with  a  particular  style  of  writ- 
ing which  is  taught  in  business  colleges,  and  is  being 
adopted  in  the  schools.  Such  an  association  does  not 
seem  to  exist  in  the  specimens  before  us.  This  problem 
is  of  major  importance,  and  should  be  studied  more 
thoroughly  on  the  basis  of  wider  results  from  the  whole 
class. 

The  results  of  the  experiment  with  the  saw  teeth  are 
easy  to  interpret,  and  need  not  be  illustrated  here. 

An  important  part  in  any  experiment  in  which  ap- 
paratus plays  a  prominent  role  consists  in  testing  the 
reliability  of  the  apparatus.  In  the  present  instance,  it 
is  likely  to  seem  to  a  good  many  writers  who  have 
learned  the  arm-movement  style  of  writing  that  the 
apparatus  does  not  faithfully  represent  their  writing 
movement.  The  criticism  may  be  raised  that  there  is 
some  play  in  the  levers  which  makes  the  traced  record 
less  complete  than  the  movement  of  the  hand  and  arm. 
In  an  original  experiment  all  such  possible  criticisms 
should  be  anticipated. 

Eictensions  of  the  experiment.  One  form  of  exten- 
sion of  this  experiment,  then,  may  consist  in  determin- 
ing the  degree  to  which  the  movement  of  the  pen  repro- 
duces the  movement  of  the  attachment  of  the  band 
which  goes  round  the  hand.  The  test  may  be  made 
roughly  by  holding  the  plate  of  the  socket-joint  firmly 
against  a  sloping  pencil,  and  then  tracing  a  figure  with 
the  pencil,  taking  care  to  keep  the  pencil  at  a  constant 
angle  to  the  paper  and  otherwise  parallel  to  its  position 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    79 

at  the  start.  A  more  exact  method  is  to  construct  a 
small  three-legged  stand,  about  three  inches  high  and 
with  rounded  feet,  to  make  it  slide  easily,  and  a  vertical 
tube  in  the  center  large  enough  to  hold  a  short  pencil. 
The  ball-and-socket  attachment  of  the  hand-band  may 
then  be  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  stand  directly  above 
the  pencil,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  joint  moves 
freely,  and  a  record  made  by  sliding  the  stand  over  the 
paper.  If  the  tracer  record  does  not  correspond  closely 
to  the  record  made  by  the  pencil  the  apparatus  should 
be  examined  to  see  if  any  joints  are  loose.  The  two 
records  should  be  very  nearly  identical. 

Another  extension  of  this  experiment,  which  may  be 
made,  is  to  conduct  a  practice  experiment  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  arm  movement,  recording  the  progress 
by  means  of  the  tracer  instrument.  This  will  give 
some  insight  into  the  conditions  of  such  a  modification 
of  a  long-standing  coordination,  such  as  writing,  and 
will  give  a  basis  for  estimating  the  diflBculty  attendant 
upon  the  attempt  to  modify  the  handwriting  habits  of 
the  pupils. 

The  writing  coordination  of  pupils  themselves  may 
be  analyzed  by  means  of  the  tracer.  Comparisons  may 
be  made  between  the  writing  of  pupils  of  different 
degrees  of  maturity,  or  between  groups  who  have  been 
taught  by  different  methods. 

Another  type  of  study  of  the  writing  coordination 
consists  in  a  measurement  of  the  speed  and  pressure- 
changes  of  the  resultant  total  writing  movement,  in- 


80  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

stead  of  the  analysis  of  the  component  elements  of  the 
co5rdination.  Such  a  study  makes  possible  the  deter- 
mination of  such  features  as  the  rhythm  of  the  writing 
movement.  Rhythm  is  present  when  the  successive 
strokes  are  made  in  something  like  equal  periods  of 
time.  In  the  young  child's  writing  long  strokes  are 
made  in  much  longer  time  than  short  strokes,  while 
in  an  adult's  writing  the  duration  of  long  and  short 
strokes  may  be  equal.  The  determination  of  such  facts 
as  these  requires  some  form  of  apparatus  by  which  the 
speed  of  movement  may  be  measured.  The  writer's 
article  in  the  Psychological  Monographs,  cited  in  the 
list  of  references,  describes  an  elaborate  form  of  appa- 
ratus which  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  A  simpler 
form  could  be  set  up,  particularly  if  the  pressure  were 
not  recorded,  to  make  less  accurate  measurements. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  pressure  alone  coidd  be  re- 
corded by  means  of  a  relatively  simple  table,  set  upon 
a  lever  which  was  kept  in  position  by  a  spring  and 
records  upon  a  kymograph  drum. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    81 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  conclusions  may  be  drawn,  if  any,  as  to  the  proper  func- 
tion of  finger,  hand,  and  arm  movement? 

2.  Do  the  results  throw  any  light  on  the  amoimt  of  individual 
difference  in  this  respect  which  it  is  desirable  to  allow? 

S.  What  bearing  does  the  fact  regarding  the  function  of  arm 
movement  have  upon  the  most  desirable  position  of  the  paper 
and  slant  of  the  writing. 

4.  Make  any  observations  you  can  upon  other  acts  of  skill,  and 
note  individual  differences  in  the  coordination. 

5.  In  what  degree  can  the  makeup  of  the  coordination  be  con- 
trolled by  the  teacher  or  the  learner? 

6.  Distingmsh  between  form  and  execution  in  an  act  of  skill. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman,  F.  N.  "Some  Issues  in  the  Teaching  of  Handwriting"; 
in  Elementary  School  Teacher  (1911),  vol.  12,  pp.  1-7  and  53-59. 

Freeman,  F.  N.  An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Handtoriting  Move- 
ment, Psychological  Monographs  (1914),  vol.  17,  pp.  1-54. 

Judd,  C.  H.  Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers,  chap.  vi. 


83  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  8 

A   TEST   OF  HANDWRITING 

Problem.  The  grading  of  handwriting,  either  for  the 
purposes  of  teaching  or  of  supervision,  is  very  uncer- 
tain because  of  the  lack  of  a  means  of  accurately  judg- 
ing its  excellence.  In  making  a  judgment  it  is  necessary 
to  take  into  account  all  the  characteristics  which  are 
essential  to  good  writing.  These  include  at  least  the 
speed  with  which  the  writing  is  produced  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  writing  itself.  The  speed  can  easily  be  meas- 
ured by  requiring  the  pupils  to  write,  for  a  specified 
length  of  time,  material  which  has  been  memorized. 
Quality  is  not  so  easy  to  measure,  because  of  imcer- 
tainty  as  to  what  constitutes  good  quality  and  of  the 
difficulty  of  finding  means  of  measuring  quality  when 
it  is  defined.  Thorndike,  in  constructing  his  measuring 
scale,  used  three  characteristics  for  quality;  namely, 
legibility,  beauty,  and  character.  Ayres  used  legibility 
alone.  The  two  investigators  agree  in  taking,  as  the 
basis  of  judgment,  a  general  unanalyzed  quality  or 
group  of  qualities.  The  method  of  constructing  their 
scales  is  different,  but  the  method  of  applying  them  is 
the  same;  namely,  to  judge  by  the  general  impression 
which  the  writing  makes.  The  scales  help  by  giving 
standards  by  which  these  general  impressions  may  be 
given  numerical  equivalents.  The  scale  which  is  pre- 
sented for  trial  in  this  experiment  differs  from  the  two 


/    EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    88 

above  mentioned  in  that  one  in  using  it  does  not  at- 
tempt to  compare  the  general  impression  made  by  the 
specimen  to  be  judged  with  the  impressions  made  by 
the  specimens  in  the  scale,  but  rather  tries  to  analyze 
and  rank  the  most  important  elements  of  the  form  of 
the  writing  which  produce  the  impression  of  legibility, 
beauty,  etc.^ 

The  elementary  characteristics  of  the  writing  which 
are  assumed  to  constitute  it  legible,  beautiful,  etc.,  are 
four:  (1)  the  degree  of  uniformity  of  the  writing,  (2)  the 
quality  of  the  line,  (3)  the  correctness  of  letter  forma- 
tion, and  (4)  the  spacing  or  composition.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  explain  what  is  meant  by  these  categories  more 
fully. 

Uniformity  is  applied  particularly  to  two  character- 
istics, slant  and  alinement,  the  latter  including  the 
height  of  the  letters.  It  cannot  be  said  that  any  par- 
ticular slant  is  the  best,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  slant 
of  any  person's  writing  should  be  uniform.  Variability 
in  slant  may  be  of  various  sorts.  In  the  first  place,  it 
may  be  due  to  a  general  lack  of  coordination,  so  that 
the  variability  follows  no  rule.  In  the  second  place,  it 
may  consist  in  an  increased  slant  toward  the  end  of  the 
line,  which  is  due  to  the  lack  of  corrective  adjustment. 
Finally,  it  may  be  due  to  occasional  readjustments  in 

*  The  Thomdike  Scale  can  be  obtained  from  the  Biveau  of  Pub- 
lications of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City; 
The  Ayres  Scale  from  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Division  of  Edu- 
cation, New  York  City;  and  the  Analytical  Scale  from  Houghton 
MifBin  Company. 


84  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

the  position  of  the  hand  or  paper,  the  slant  remaining 
fairly  uniform  between  these  readjustments.  Similarly, 
the  letters  should  come  to  a  common  base  line,  and  the 
same  kinds  of  letters  should  be  of  the  same  height.  We 
may  confine  our  attention,  for  convenience,  to  the  one- 
space  letters.  It  is  not  easy  to  grade  uniformity  of 
slant  and  of  alinement  together,  so  these  two  categories 
have  been  separated  in  the  charts. 

All  the  characteristics  so  far  described  might  appear 
in  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  and  yet  the  writing 
might  be  seriously  at  fault  if  the  line  itself  were  not 
clear  and  firm.  The  line  should  have  evenness  in  width, 
indicating  evenness  of  pressure  upon  the  pen,  or  at 
least  changes  in  width  should  not  be  great,  abrupt,  nor 
irregular.  A  moderate  degree  of  even  shading  should 
not  be  penalized.  The  direction  of  the  line  also  should 
not  change  in  an  uneven  fashion,  producing  a  wavy  or 
jagged  appearance  and  indicating  lack  of  freedom, 
ease,  and  control  of  movement.  The  third  category, 
therefore,  is  quality  of  line. 

The  fourth  characteristic  refers  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  lines  within  the  letter  itself.  In  general  the  point 
to  be  judged  is  the  degree  of  conformity  of  the  letter 
formation  to  the  standard  letters.  In  applying  this 
standard  the  judge  must  avoid  using  the  peculiarities 
of  any  particular  style  of  alphabet  as  a  guide,  and 
must  try  to  distinguish  the  requirements  on  which  all 
English  alphabets  would  agree.  For  example,  all  would 
agree  that  the  "  o  "  should  be  closed,  that  the  last 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    85 

stroke  of  the  "  a  "  should  come  to  the  base  line,  that 
the  "  t  "  should  not  have  a  loop,  etc.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  to  judge  this  characteristic  is  to  look  through  the 
writing  and  try  to  estimate  rapidly  the  degree  to  which 
the  letters  are  well  formed  and  clear. 

The  fifth  category,  spacing,  is  somewhat  more  diffi- 
cult to  analyze  and  rank.  The  aim  from  this  point  of 
view  may  be  said  to  be  —  first,  to  so  place  the  letters 
and  words  on  the  page  that  the  words  themselves  pos- 
sess unity.  The  letters  should  be  far  enough  apart  to 
make  them  easily  distinguishable,  but  should  be  close 
enough  together  to  give  the  word  a  compact  appear- 
ance. In  the  second  place,  the  words  should  be  related 
to  each  other  much  as  the  letters  are  related  in  the 
word.  There  should  be  enough  space  between  the 
words  on  a  line,  and  between  the  lines,  to  render  each 
word  distinct,  but  no  more.  The  specimens  on  the 
chart  illustrate  the  application  of  these  principles. 

Material  and  metiiod.  In  order  to  aid  in  discrimi- 
nating these  different  characteristics,  and  awarding  to 
specimens  grades  according  to  their  standing  in  each 
quality,  a  chart  has  been  prepared.  This  chart  is 
comp)osed  of  five  series  of  writing  specimens,  arranged 
in  an  ascending  scale  of  excellence,  each  series  repre- 
senting one  of  the  qualities  which  have  been  described. 
Thus  the  first  series  represents  different  degrees  of 
uniformity  of  slant;  the  second  series,  degrees  of  uni- 
formity of  alinement  and  size;  etc.  Three  degrees  of 
excellence  are  distinguished  in  each  chart.   In  all  the 


86  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

categories  these  are  given  scores  of  1,  8,  and  5  respec- 
tively. The  intermediate  scores  2  and  4  may  be  used. 
The  scores  for  letter  formation  may  be  doubled,  on 
the  assumption  that  this  characteristic  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  others.  It  is  probably  better  to  use 
the  same  scoring  as  in  the  others  in  making  the  judg- 
ments, and  then  double  them  afterwards. 

The  specimen  to  be  judged  is  graded  according  to 
each  category  separately,  and  given  the  rank  of  the 
specimen  in  the  chart  with  which  it  most  nearly  cor- 
responds in  each  case.  The  total  rank  is  calculated 
by  summing  the  five  individual  ranks.  Thus,  if  letter 
formation  is  given  double  value,  the  lowest  possible 
rank  is  6,  and  the  highest  possible  rank  is  30  (5,  plus 
5,  plus  5,  plus  10,  plus  5),  and  the  range  is  24. 

Several  precautions  are  to  be  observed  in  making  the 
judgments.  The  value  of  the  method  rests  upon  the 
fact  that  different  features  of  the  writing  are  singled 
out  one  at  a  time,  and  are  graded  by  being  given  a  rank 
in  one  of  only  three  steps.  The  differences  between  the 
steps  are  marked,  and  the  ease  of  placing  a  specimen 
should  be  correspondingly  easy. 

This  method  implies,  however,  that 

(1)  The  attention  is  fixed  on  only  one  characteristic 
at  a  time. 

(2)  The  judgment  on  one  point  be  not  allowed  to 
influence  the  judgment  on  the  other  points. 

(3)  The  same  fault  be  counted  only  once. 

(4)  General  impression  be  disregarded. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    87 

These  four  rules,  in  fact,  express  different  aspects  of 
the  same  precaution,  but  it  is  worth  the  emphasis  thus 
given. 

The  experiment  consists  in  judging,  by  means  of  the 
method  which  has  been  described,  one  hundred  spe- 
cimens of  writing  of  different  styles  and  from  writers 
of  different  ages.  (In  order  to  give  some  preUminary 
practice,  ten  additional  specimens  should  be  provided 
which  are  to  be  graded  first.)  No  marks  are  to  be 
made  on  the  specimens  themselves.  Each  one  is  given 
a  serial  number,  and  a  record  is  to  be  kept  of  the  indi- 
vidual ranks  as  well  as  the  final  rank  assigned  to  each 
specimen. 

The  individual  reports  should  contain  a  table  con- 
taining these  data,  together  with  the  average  rank  as- 
signed to  the  group  of  papers.  Each  individual  should 
also  put  the  ranks  which  he  has  assigned  into  a  chart 
to  show  their  distribution.  (For  example  of  a  distribu- 
tion chart,  see  the  article  by  Starch  and  Elliott,  in  the 
School  Review  for  April,  1913,  p.  256.)  In  this  case  the 
units  on  the  base  line  represent  the  possible  ranks  from 
6  to  30.  Above  each  rank  should  be  written  the  num- 
bers of  all  the  papers  which  are  assigned  that  rank. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  results  obtained  by 
the  use  of  the  analytic  scale  with  untrained  judges  have 
not  as  yet  warranted  a  positive  statement  as  to  the 
possibility  of  obtaining  highly  consistent  results  in  the 
grading  of  writing  by  different  graders.  We  may  first 
examine  the  record  of  the  scores  given  by  one  group  of 


88 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


ten  graders  to  50  specimens  of  children's  writing,  and 
then  consider  their  significance.  In  Table  VII  are 
given  the  scores  given  by  the  ten  graders  to  five  of  the 
papers,  chosen  so  as  to  represent  different  degrees  of 
excellence. 


TABLE  VII. 


SCORES  OF  TEN  INDIVIDUALS  GRADING 
FIVE  WRITING  SPECIMENS 


Grader 

Specimen 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

A 

8 
7 
8 
6 
7 

10 
9 
9 

12 
8 

14 
13 
10 
10 
19 
18 
15 
17 
14 
18 

14 
15 
16 
22 
21 
17 
17 
14 
18 
20 

18 
14 
20 
12 

22 
28 
24 
21 
20 
24 

28 

B 

23 

C 

28 

D 

28 

E 

28 

F 

30 

G 

29 

H 

29 

I 

29 

J 

26 

Average 

8.4 

14.9 

17.4 

20.3 

27.8 

The  examination  of  this  table  makes  it  clear  that 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  variation  in  the  grades  which 
different  untrained  individuals  give  to  the  same  pa- 
pers. In  specimen  1  the  range  is  from  6,  the  lowest 
possible  rank,  to  12.  In  specimen  4  the  range  is  from 
12  to  28. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    89 

TABLE  VIII.  AVERAGE  OF  THE  GRADES  GIVEN  BY 
TEN  GRADERS  TO  THE  SAME  FIFTY  PAPERS,  USING 
THE  ANALYTIC  AND  THE  AYRES  SCALES 


Oradera 

Averages  by 

analytic 

scale 

Variations 
from  gen- 
eral average 

Averages  by 
Ayres 
scale 

Variationa 
from  gener- 
al average 

1 

18.2 

13.7 

16.34 

15.86 

17.08 

19.05 

19.86 

19.8 

19.58 

19.64 

.3 
4.2 
1.6 
2.0 

.8 
1.2 
2.0 
1.9 
1.7 
1.7 

59.8 
52.4 
48.9 
47.1 
58.0 
63.1 
60.1 
56.8 
51.0 
70.7 

3.0 

2 

4.4 

8 

7.9 

4 

9.7 

5 

1.2 

6 

6.3 

7 

3.3 

8 

0. 

0 

5.8 

10 

13.9 

Average 

17.9 

56.8 

Mean  Variation . . 

1.74 

•• 

6.6 

The  examination  of  the  variation  among  the  average 
of  the  grades  given  by  the  different  graders  to  the 
whole  set  of  fifty  papers  may  be  more  encom-aging. 
These  averages  are  shown  in  the  second  column  of 
Table  VIII.  The  mean  variation  of  these  averages  is 
1.74  steps  on  the  scale,  the  extreme  range  of  which  is 
24  points.  This  variation  is  in  both  directions  from  the 
average,  so  that  about  half  of  the  graders  are  3.5 
points  or  more  apart  in  the  average  rank  they  assign  to 
a  group  of  fifty  papers.  For  instance,  in  this  group  the 
third  grader  from  the  bottom  assigns  an  average  grade 
of  16.34,  and  the  second  from  the  top  19.8.  This  dif- 


90  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

ference  of  3.5  points  is  about  equivalent  to  the  average 
progress  made  in  two  school  years.  In  the  case  of  an- 
other group  of  fifteen  graders  the  variation  was  con- 
siderably less,  being  1.49. 

A  study  has  already  been  made  of  the  variability  of 
graders  using  the  Ayres  scale.  See  the  article  by  Man- 
uel, cited  in  the  list  of  references.  In  the  present  exper- 
iment a  similar  test  was  made  and  the  final  results  are 
shown  in  the  last  two  columns  of  Table  VIII. 

The  question  which  immediately  arises  is.  Which  of 
the  two  variabilities,  1.74  or  5.6,  is  the  greater?  We 
cannot  determine  merely  on  the  basis  of  the  amounts 
taken  at  their  face  value,  since  they  are  based  on  en- 
tirely dififerent  units.  Various  means  of  equating  such 
coefficients  of  variability  have  been  used  or  suggested. 
See  the  articles  by  Starch,^  Weiss, ^  Pintner,'  and 
Kelley.< 

The  most  reliable  method  is  the  one  which  takes,  as 

the  measure  of  the  units  which  are  used,  the  actual 

range  among  specimens  which  are  graded  in  terms  of 

these  units.  If  the  same  specimens  are  graded  by  two 

scales,  and  are  distributed  according  to  the  scores 

^  Starch,  D.  "The  Measurement  of  HandwTiting";  in  Journal  of 
Edticational  Psychology  (1913),  vol.  4,  pp.  445-64. 

*  Weiss,  A.  P.  "  A  Modified  Slide  Rule  and  Index  Method  in  Indi- 
vidual Measurements";  in  Journal  of  Educaiiorud  Psychology  (1914), 
vol.  7,  pp.  190-225. 

*  Pintner,  R.  "  A  comparison  of  the  Ayres  and  Thomdike  Hand- 
writing Scales";  in  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (1914),  vol. 
6,  pp.  525-36. 

*  Kelley,  T.  L.  "Comparable  Measures";  in  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology  (1914),  vol.  5,  pp.  589-95. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    91 

which  are  given  to  them,  we  may  assume  that  the 
range  of  one  distribution  roughly  represents  the  same 
range  in  merit  that  is  represented  in  the  other.  Since 
extreme  cases  are  Hkely  to  be  somewhat  unreliable,  we 
may  take  the  extent  of  the  middle  half  (approximately) 
of  each  distribution  as  representing  equal  ranges 
in  merit.  Thus,  in  the  present  case,  the  score  of  each 
of  the  fifty  papers  on  the  Analytic  and  Ayres  Scales 
(based  on  the  average  of  the  rankings  of  the  ten  grad- 
ers) is  as  follows:  — 

COMPARISON  OF  SCORES.  USING 


Analytic 

Ayres 

Analytic 

Ayres 

scale 

scale 

scale 

scale 

8.4 

24.0 

17.4 

56.5 

10.8 

31.5 

17.5 

58.5 

11.2 

37.5 

17.7 

58.5 

12.8 

39.5 

17.8 

59.0 

13.4 

41.0 

18.0 

59.0 

13.4 

42.0 

18.2 

60.0 

13.7 

42.5 

18.3 

60.0 

14.0 

43.5 

18.3 

61.0 

14.1 

44.5 

18.6 

61.0 

14.4 

45.0 

19.5 

61.0 

14.8 

45.5 

19.6 

62.5 

14.9 

46.5 

20.3 

64.0 

14.9 

48.5 

20.3 

65.5 

15.0 

49.0 

21.6 

65.5 

15.0 

49.0 

21.9 

67.5 

16.0 

60.0 

22.5 

68.5 

16.1 

51.0 

22.9 

71.0 

16.2 

52.0 

23.4 

73.5 

16.4 

52.5 

23.7 

73.5 

16.5 

52.5 

23.9 

75.0 

16.6 

53.0 

24.1 

75.5 

16.6 

53.0 

25.0 

77.0 

16.8 

53.5 

26.1 

79.0 

17.1 

54.5 

27.5 

83.0 

17.1 

55.0 

27.8 

88.0 

02  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

The  scores  are  arranged  in  ascending  order  in  each 
case,  and  the  scores  which  correspond  in  position  in 
the  two  series  do  not  necessarily  represent  the  same 
paper. 

The  assumption  in  this  particular  case  is  that  the 
range  14.9  to  20.3  is  approximately  equivalent  to  the 
range  48.5  to  65.5  or,  in  other  words,  that  20.3-14.9, 
or  5.4  units  on  the  analytic  scale,  are  approximately 
equivalent  to  65.5-48.5,  or  17  units  on  the  Ayres  scale. 
One  unit  on  the  analytic  scale  is  then  equivalent  to 
3.15  units  on  the  Ayres  scale. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  equate  the  two  coeffi- 
cients of  variability,  1.74  and  5.6,  by  multiplying  1.74 
by  3.15,  and  thus  turning  it  into  equivalent  units.  The 
variability  turns  out  to  be  5,48  by  the  analytic  scale, 
as  compared  with  5.6  by  the  Ayres  scale. 

Neither  of  these  is  satisfactory  if  we  are  to  compare 
ratings  made  by  diflFerent  investigators,  imless  we  have 
each  set  of  papers  rated  by  a  group  of  judges.  Prelim- 
inary tests  have  indicated,  however,  that  a  much  more 
reliable  set  of  judgments  may  be  obtained  by  the  ana- 
lytic method  when  the  judges  are  trained  for  their 
task.  This  requires  ample  discussion  by  a  group  of 
graders  upon  the  jBrst  few  papers  they  grade.  After  a 
careful  study  and  comparison  of  their  grades  upon 
twenty-five  papers,  the  variation  becomes  inconsider- 
able. Practice,  with  conferences,  also  greatly  reduces 
the  variability  in  the  use  of  the  other  scales.  (See 
Gray's  article  referred  to  below.) 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    93 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  This  is  one  type  of 
extension  of  this  experiment  that  could  profitably  be 
made.  One  might,  if  successful,  go  still  further,  and 
determine  whether  judges  might  be  trained  by  using  a 
set  of  printed  instructions  accompanied  by  a  set  of 
papers  and  their  standard  ratings. 

Further  extensions  of  this  experiment  may  be  made 
by  using  some  of  the  scales  which  have  been  developed 
in  other  subjects,  and  testing  their  reliability.  The  list 
of  references  below  indicates  directions  in  which  fur- 
ther study  might  be  made.  Finally,  the  attempt  may 
be  made  to  work  out  and  standardize  an  analytic  scale 
for  the  measurement  of  attainment  in  some  other  sub- 
ject of  the  curriculum. 

QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Discuss  fully  the  adequacy  or  inadequacy  of  this  method  of 
testing  handwriting. 

a.  Were  any  categories  less  satisfactory  than  others? 

b.  Is  the  list  of  important  categories  complete? 

c.  Are  any  particular  specimens  unsatisfactory? 

d.  Is  the  use  of  the  method  unduly  cumbersome? 

«.  Compare  the  method  with  those  of  Thorndike  or  Ayres  if 
you  have  used  them. 

2.  How  might  such  procedure  lead  to  a  better  appreciation  of  the 
qualities  of  good  writing? 

8.  How  might  such  a  method  help  the  teacher  in  teaching? 

4.  How  reliable  is  the  method  for  comparing  diflFerent  grades  or 
schools?  (The  general  report  should  include  an  especially  full 
discussion  of  this  question.) 

5.  Add  any  suggestions  which  occur  to  you. 

6.  Does  an  analytical  scale  require  any  more  training  for  its  satis- 
factory use  than  one  which  requires  judgment  from  general 
impression? 

7.  Is  there  any  other  method  than  that  used  by  Gray  (Texas 


M  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

bulletin)  of  determining  the  relative  importance  of  the  vari- 
ous categories?  What  is  it? 
8.  Look  up,  if  you  can,  the  method  of  grading  some  agricultural 
product  and  give  a  sample  score  card. 

REFERENCES 

Ayres,  L.  P.  A  Scale  for  Measuring  the  Quality  of  Handwriting 
of  School  Children.  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Division  of  Education, 
New  York  City. 

Freeman,  F.  N.  "Problems  and  Methods  of  Investigation  in 
Handwriting";  in  Journal  of  Educaiional  Psychology  (1912). 

Freeman,  F.  N.  The  Teaching  of  Handwriting.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company  (1914). 

Freeman,  F.  N.  "An  Analytical  Scale  for  Judging  Handwriting"; 
in  Elementary  School  Journal  (1915),  vol.  15,  pp.  432  -41. 

Gray,  C.  T.  "The  Training  of  Judgment  in  the  Use  of  the  Ayres 
Scale  for  Handwriting";  in  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology 
(1915),  vol.  6,  pp.  85-95. 

Gray,  C.  T.  "A  Score  Card  for  the  Measurement  of  Handwriting," 
Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas  (1915),  no.  37. 

Manuel,  H.  T.  "The  Use  of  an  Objective  Scale  for  Grading 
Handwriting";  in  Elementary  School  Journal  (1915),  vol.  15,  pp. 
269-78. 

Thomdike,  E.  L.  "Handwriting";  in  Teachers  College  Record 
(March.  1910). 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    95 


Experiment  No.  9     * 

OBSERVATION  OP  EYE  MOVEMENTS  IN  READING 

Problem.  In  reading,  as  in  writing,  we  shall  begin 
with  the  study  of  the  motor  coordination,  as  the  proc- 
ess of  reading  depends  upon  the  formation  of  motor 
habits,  just  as  does 
writing. 

Material  and 
method.  For  the 
accurate  study  of 
eye  movements  it 
is  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  some  me- 
chanical means  of 
recording  them, 
such  as  the  me- 
chanical recording 
device  described  by 
Huey,  or  some  pho- 
tographic method. 
The      outstanding 

characteristics  of  the  movement  may  be  observed, 
however,  without  the  use  of  these  refined  methods.  In 
fact,  Erdmann  and  Dodge,  who  were  the  pioneers  in 
the  recent  study  of  the  eye  movements  in  reading, 
merely  observed  the  eye  through  a  telescope.  In- 
stead of  using  a  telescope  we  may  observe  the  eye 


Ifie.  6. 


MIRROR  FOR  OBSERVINO  BTB 
MOV£M£NXS 


96  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

movements  in  a  mirror  from  behind  the  subject,  as 
is  shown  in  Figure  6,  and  thus  facilitate  observa- 
tion by  getting  close  to  the  eye  which  is  to  be  ob- 
served. 

The  mirror  is  set  in  an  adjustable  frame  so  that  it 
may  be  close  to  the  subject's  eye,  and  at  such  a  height 
that  the  top  of  the  mirror  is  on  the  level  with  the  lower 
edge  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  when  the  head  is  held  erect. 
With  this  arrangement  the  subject  can  look  over  the 
mirror  and  read  material  which  is  held  at  a  level  with 
the  eye,  and  at  the  same  time  the  experimenter  can  see 
enough  of  the  eye  to  observe  its  movements.  The  sub- 
ject should  look  toward  the  window,  or  other  source  of 
light,  and  the  text  which  is  to  be  read  should  be  placed 
about  on  the  level  of  the  eye.  It  requires  a  little  prac- 
tice to  catch  the  small  and  rapid  eye  movements,  and 
the  method  is  at  best  a  means  to  an  approximate 
count  of  the  movements  which  are  made  in  reading 
each  line  of  print.  The  subject  should  begin  at  a  known 
place  on  the  page,  and  look  from  the  left  to  the  right 
margin  before  beginning  to  read,  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  a  warning  signal  to  the  experimenter.  The 
speed  of  reading  should  be  measured  by  means  of  a 
stop-watch  in  the  hand  of  the  subject.  The  experimen- 
ter should,  without  taking  his  eyes  from  the  eye  of  the 
subject,  make  note  with  pencil  and  paper  of  the  num- 
ber of  fixations  made  in  reading  each  line.  A  frequent 
source  of  error  is  to  count  the  eye  movements,  instead 
of  the  fixations.  When  this  is  done,  either  the  return 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHC)OL  SUBJECTS    97 

sweep  must  be  counted  or  1  must  be  added  to  the 
count  for  each  Hne.  The  subject  should  read  silently 
and  continuously. 

The  number  of  pauses  to  a  line,  and  the  average 
number  of  words  to  a  pause,  should  be  calculated;  first 
for  the  same  sort  of  subject-matter,  but  for  different 
lengths  of  line  and  different  sizes  of  print.  For  this 
purpose  there  are  first  provided  two  texts,  the  subject- 
matter  of  which  is  printed  in  11 -point  type;  the  first. 
No.  1,  having  a  length  of  line  of  24  ems,  and  the  other. 
No.  2,  of  12  ems.  In  order  to  study  the  effect  of 
the  size  of  type  on  the  eye  movements,  a  third  text, 
having  a  length  of  line  of  24  ems  and  printed  in  7- 
point  type,  is  provided  for  comparison  with  the  first 
specimen.  In  order  to  test  the  effect  of  the  character 
of  the  subject-matter  upon  the  eye  movements,  a 
fourth  specimen.  No.  4,  is  provided,  having  the  same 
type  and  length  of  line  as  specimen  1,  but  having  nar- 
rative as  subject-matter.  Finally,  to  test  the  speed  of 
reading  upon  eye  movements,  a  fifth  specimen.  No.  5, 
similar  to  specimen  1,  in  type,  length  of  line,  and  sub- 
ject-matter is  provided,  which  is  to  be  read  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  All  of  these  texts  are  reproduced  in  the 
Appendix,  which  see. 

Treatment  of  results.  Each  individual  should  cal- 
culate the  average  number  of  pauses  per  line  and  per 
unit  length  of  line;  the  average  number  of  words  per 
line,  and  the  average  number  of  words  perceived  dur- 
ing one  reading  pause  for  each  of  the  five  texts.  The 


IW 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  IX.    RESULTS  FROM  THE  STUDY  OP 
READING  PAUSES 

TEXT  I 


Individual 

No. 

pauses 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

paimes 

per 

em 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

pause 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 
second 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

second 

1 

4.88 

2.89 

4.64 

2.64 

3.5 

5.0 

2.37 

3.8 

6.1 

6.7 

8.97 

7.07 

4.6 

3.4 

.20 
.12 
.19 
.11 
.14 
.20 
.10 
.15 
.21 
.24 
.16 
.29 
.19 
.14 

10.8 
10.0 
11.2 
11.3 
11.0 
11.3 
10.0 
11.3 
11.3 
11.3 
11.0 
11.2 
11.2 
11.0 

2.2 

3.52 

2.41 

4.17 

3.4 

2.3 

4.2 

3.4 

2.2 

2.0 

2.77 

2.43 

2.43 

3.05 

2.1 

1.51 

1.08 

1.84 

1.17 

2.78 

2.0 

1.82 

2.0 

1.50 

1.82 

2.87 

2.0 

2.35 

4.81 

2 

5.31 

3 

2.45 

4 

7.68 

5 

3.67 

6 

6.28 

7 

8.41 

8 

5.91 

9 

4.4 

10 

3.0 

11 

5.06 

12 

4.64 

13 

4.32 

14 

7.19 

Average 

4.25 

.17 

11.0 

2.81 

1.92 

5.21 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    99 


TABLE  IX  (continued) 
TEXT  II 


Individual 

No. 

pauses 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 

em 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

pause 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 
second 

Ave.  no. 
words 

per 
second 

1 

2.94 
1.09 
8.9 
1.17 
2.0 
2.7 
.8 
2.4 
8.0 
8.1 
2.05 
8.87 
8.0 
1.94 

.24 
.09 
.32 
.09 
.16 
.22 
.07 
.20 
.25 
.26 
.17 
.28 
.25 
.16 

5.08 

5.0 

5.1 

4.91 

5.0 

4.8 

5.0 

5.0 

4.8 

5.0 

5.0 

6.1 

5.08 

4.91 

1.7 

4.61 

1.30 

4.19 

2.50 

1.8 

6.8 

2.1 

1.6 

1.6 

2.43 

1.48 

1.69 

2.53 

2.7 

1.27 

1.82 

1.95 

1.27 

3.15 

1.3 

2.62 

2.7 

1.6 

2.18 

2.12 

2.86 

3.22 

4.7 

», 

5.88 

t 

8 

2.88 

4 

8.19 

5 

8.18 

6 

5.6 

7 

8.88 

8 

5  44 

9 

4  8 

2.5 

11 

5.8 
8.88 

18 

4.94 

14 

8.15 

Average 

2.39 

.20 

4.98 

2.56 

2.28 

5.05 

100 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  IX  {continued) 
TEXT  in 


Individual 

No. 

pauses 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

pauses 

per 

em 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

vxrrds 

per 

pause 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 
second 

Ave.  no. 
words 

second 

1 

6.34 

4.49 

7.09 

3.11 

4.5 

5.83 

3.41 

3.72 

6.4 

6.4 

5.68 

8.04 

8.37 

4.63 

.26 
.19 
.29 
.13 
.20 
.24 
.14 
.15 
.27 
.27 
.23 
.33 
.34 
.19 

15.5 
16.7 
14.9 
15.3 
15.0 
16.0 
16.7 
14.7 
15.0 
14.9 
15.0 
14.9 
15.4 
15.3 

2.4 

8.72 

2.6 

4.56 

3.33 

2.67 

4.9 

4.0 

2.30 

1.85 

2.68 

1.85 

1.84 

3.29 

2.6 

1.76 

1.32 

1.8 

1.11 

3.12 

2.2 

1.3 

1.9 

1.11 

2.14 

2.3 

2.5 

2.4 

6.4 

2 

6.58 

8 

2.78 

4 

8.22 

5 

3.  7 

6 

8.06 

7 

10.9 

8 

5.13 

9 

4.8 

10 

2.7 

11 

5.76 

12 

4.3 

13 

4.61 

14 

7.92 

Average 

5.56 

.23 

15.3 

3.03 

1.97 

5.81 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    101 


TABLE  IX  (continued) 
TEXT  IV 


Individual 

No. 

pauses 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 

em 

Ave.  no. 

vxyrds 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

pause 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 
second 

Ave.  no. 

vxyrds 

per 

second 

1 

4.91 

3.12 

5.06 

1.88 

3.5 

4.33 

2.48 

3.03 

5.3 

5.1 

3.88 

6.87 

5.28 

3.11 

.20 
.13 
.21 
.08 
.14 
.18 
.10 
.12 
.22 
.21 
.16 
.28 
.22 
.13 

12.4 
12.0 
12.8 
12.3 
12.0 
12.3 
12.0 
12.5 
12.3 
12.5 
12.0 
12.8 
12.4 
12.4 

2.5 

3.85 

2.53 

6.56 

3.42 

2.84 

4.8 

4.1 

2.3 

2.4 

3.09 

1.86 

2.16 

3.97 

2.9 

1.75 

1.6 

1.53 

1.09 

3.03 

2.35 

2.1 

2.4 

1.9 

2.61 

2.67 

2.66 

2.57 

7.25  1 

2 

6.74 

8 

4.07 

4 

10.07 

5 

3.71 

6 

8.61 

7 

11.4 

8 

8  7 

9 

5  5 

10 

4  6 

11 

8.04 

12 

13 

4.97 
5  98 

14 

12  1 

Average 

4.13 

.17 

12.3 

3.31 

2.23 

7.27 

im 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  IX  (continued) 
TEXT  V 


Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

pauses 

per 

em 

Ave.  no. 

words 

per 

line 

Ave.  no. 

vxyrds 

per 

pause 

Ave.  no. 
pauses 

per 
second 

4.31 

.18 

10.7 

2.4 

2.5 

3.4 

.13 

10.3 

3.29 

1.67 

5.44 

.22 

10.7 

1.96 

1.42 

2.05 

.08 

10.6 

6.16 

2.0 

3.57 

.13 

11.0 

3.59 

1.5 

3.46 

.14 

11.3 

3.26 

2.95 

2.2 

.09 

10.3 

4.7 

2.2 

3.09 

.13 

10.8 

3.4 

2.16 

5.4 

.22 

11.3 

2.1 

3.6 

4.2 

.18 

10.6 

2.6 

2.2 

3.82 

.16 

11.0 

2.87 

3.52 

6.51 

.28 

10.7 

1.81 

2.57 

6.0 

.20 

10.6 

2.13 

2.62 

3.6 

.15 

10.6 

2.89 

2.38 

3.93 

.16 

10.7 

3.0 

2.38 

Ave.  no. 
vxyrds 

per 
second 


1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Average . 


6.2 

6.47 

2.79 

10. S 
6.38 
9.64 

10.3 
7.4 
7.6 
5.7 

10.13 
4.66 
5.05 
6.82 
6.96 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    103 

average  number  of  pauses  made  per  second  and  the 
number  of  words  read  per  second  should  also  be  cal- 
culated. Note  should  also  be  made  of  the  ease  or  diffi- 
culty, comfort  or  discomfort,  and  attractiveness  or  un- 
attractiveness  of  the  various  texts.  The  general  report 
should  include  a  table  in  which  these  facts  are  brought 
together  in  such  a  way  that  individual  differences  and 
averages  shall  appear.  These  results  should  then  be 
interpreted. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  A  summary  of  the  nu- 
merical residts  from  one  section  of  fourteen  individuals 
in  Experiment  No.  9  is  presented  in  Table  IX.  A  word 
should  be  said  regarding  the  degree  of  accuracy  of 
these  results  to  enable  one  to  discriminate  between 
those  conclusions  which  are  justified  and  those  which 
are  not.  In  the  first  place,  the  count  of  the  number  of 
pauses  per  line,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  the  formulation 
of  results,  is  probably  in  all  cases,  and  clearly  in  some, 
inaccurate.  Note,  for  example,  the  record  of  eight 
tenths  of  a  pause  per  line  for  Individual  7,  in  Series  II. 
Though  the  lines  in  this  series  were  short,  it  is  contrary 
to  all  the  evidence  which  has  been  obtained  by  an 
accurate  method  of  recording  to  suppose  that  a  person 
can  read  more  than  a  line  per  pause.  This,  and  other 
low  records,  is  probably  due  to  two  errors:  first,  the 
failure  to  catch  some  of  the  eye  movements;  and  sec- 
ond, counting  the  movements  within  a  line  instead  of 
the  pauses,  resulting  in  two  pauses  being  counted  as 
one.  The  results  then  are,  in  general,  lower  than  they 


IM  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

should  be  in  pauses  per  line,  but  we  cannot  tell  how 
much.  We  cannot  from  these  results,  then,  draw  any 
definite  conclusions  regarding  the  absolute  number  of 
pauses  per  line  or  any  of  the  facts  which  are  derived 
from  them. 

A  further  diflSculty  is  due  to  the  variability  in  accu- 
racy among  the  different  observers.  It  is  certain  that 
some  fell  into  the  error  which  has  been  mentioned  of 
counting  movements  instead  of  pauses,  and  there  are 
undoubtedly  differences  in  accuracy  besides  this.  This 
makes  it  impossible  to  make  any  certain  statements 
about  individual  differences  on  the  basis  on  these  data, 
except  in  reference  to  the  relation  of  the  different  series 
to  one  another.  Furthermore,  there  are  some  inaccu- 
racies in  the  individual  calculations  themselves,  as  is 
shown  by  the  difference  in  the  calculation  of  the  num- 
ber of  words  per  line,  and  by  the  failure  of  some  mem- 
bers to  check  which  should.  For  instance,  the  nimiber 
of  words  per  second  should  be  the  product  of  the  num- 
ber of  words  per  pause  and  the  niunber  of  pauses  per 
second,  but  it  is  not  so  in  all  cases.  This  is  a  type  of 
inaccuracy  which  ought  not  to  occur. 

Notwithstanding  these  errors,  there  is  a  fair  degree 
of  reliability  in  the  comparison  of  the  results  obtained 
with  the  successive  texts;  since  some  of  the  errors  are 
fairly  constant,  and  the  others,  in  the  average  results 
of  a  group,  counterbalance  one  another.  One  other 
possible  error  which  would  affect  the  comparison  of 
earlier  series  with  later  ones  is  an  increase  in  skill  in  the 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    105 

observers,  enabling  them  to  detect  more  fixations  as 
they  become  more  practiced.  This  would  result  in 
relatively  too  many  fixations  or  pauses  in  the  later 
series.  This  does  not  seem  to  be  true  to  an  appreciable 
extent,  however,  since  the  pauses  per  em,  or  unit 
length  of  line,  are  fewer  in  the  last  series  than  in  the 
first.  We  may  hold  that  they  should  be  still  fewer  than 
they  are  in  comparison,  but  it  seems  likely  that  this 
source  of  error  is  not  serious.  We  may  then  proceed 
to  compare  the  data  regarding  eye  behavior  for  the 
group  under  the  conditions  of  the  five  series. 

Take  first  the  final  product  of  the  various  factors, 
the  rapidity  of  reading  as  expressed  in  terms  of  words 
read  per  second.  Of  the  four  texts  which  were  read 
without  any  especial  attention  to  speed,  the  fiction  is 
read  most  rapidly  by  each  individual,  considerably  so 
by  most.  On  the  average  it  is  read  more  rapidly  than 
the  scientific  text,  No.  5,  which  is  read  rapidly  inten- 
tionally, though  there  is  not  much  difference  in  speed 
between  reading  fiction  and  intentionally  rapid  reading 
of  scientific  material.  Of  the  three  selections  which 
differ  in  length  of  line  or  size  of  type,  but  are  alike  in 
subject-matter,  that  which  is  printed  in  small  type  is 
read  most  rapidly,  on  the  average,  and  by  eight  out  of 
the  fourteen  individuals.  Between  Texts  I  and  II  there 
is  not  much  difference,  the  average  being  slightly  in 
favor  of  the  longer  line. 

What  now  are  the  factors  in  these  differences  in  the 
rate  of  reading?  Cempare  first  fiction  with  the  other 


i06  EXPEREViENTAL  EDUCATION 

materials.  When  we  examine  the  data  in  detail  we 
discover  that  the  more  rapid  reading  of  this  text  is 
partly  due  to  a  fact  which  decreases  its  significance, 
namely  to  the  fact  that  the  words  are  shorter,  as  is  in- 
dicated by  the  larger  number  in  a  line  as  compared 
with  the  other  texts  of  the  same  type  and  length  of 
line.  We  should  then  expect  more  words  to  be  read  per 
second.  The  number  of  words  per  line  also  affects  the 
nimaber  of  words  read  per  pause.  The  number  of 
pauses  per  line  is  practically  the  same  as  in  reading  the 
first  text,  and  hence  if  the  words  were  of  the  same 
length  the  number  of  words  read  per  pause  would  be 
the  same.  There  is  no  superiority  manifested,  then,  in 
the  span  of  attention  in  reading  fiction  material.  There 
is  a  slight  superiority,  however,  in  the  frequency  of  the 
pauses  themselves,  as  indicated  by  greater  number  of 
pauses  per  second.  K  this  should  be  confirmed  by 
more  careful  investigation  it  would  indicate  that  ease 
of  apprehension  serves  to  lessen  the  duration  of  eye 
pauses  rather  than  to  increase  their  scope. 

If  we  examine  the  data  for  Text  V,  for  intentionally 
rapid  reading,  we  see  that  the  gain  was  made  by  both 
an  increase  in  the  scope  of  apprehension  at  each  pause 
(decrease  in  the  number  of  pauses  per  line  or  per  em) 
and  a  decrease  in  the  duration  of  the  pauses  (increase 
in  the  number  of  pauses  per  second) .  If  we  assume  that 
the  increase  in  the  rapidity  of  reading  of  this  text  is 
dlie  to  a  greater  output  of  mental  energy,  it  appears 
that  such  an  increased  output  exjiresses  itself  both  in 
increased  scope  and  in  decreased  duration. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    107 

It  only  remains  to  notice  the  effect  of  length  of  line 
and  type.  The  shorter  line  appears  to  result  in  a 
greater  number  of  pauses  per  unit  distance,  but  this  is 
partly  counterbalanced  by  somewhat  lessened  dura- 
tion of  the  pauses.  The  greater  number  of  pauses 
seems  to  be  easily  explicable  by  the  fact  that  at  the 
end  of  the  line  there  is  likely  to  be  waste,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  amoimt  left  over  from  the  next  to  the  last 
pause  is  not  enough  to  supply  the  number  of  words  for 
a  normal  fixation,  but  is  enough  to  necessitate  an  addi- 
tional one.  If  we  multiply  the  number  of  ends  of  lines 
we  obviously  multiply  the  number  of  chances  for  this 
condition.  These  results  and  this  explanation  should 
be  compared  with  Dearborn's  discussion  of  the  length 
of  line  and  its  effect  upon  perception  in  reading. 

The  finer  type  seems  to  allow  somewhat  greater 
scop>e  of  fixation,  but  the  number  of  fixations  per  sec- 
ond does  not  increase. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  Two  ways  readily 
suggest  themselves  in  which  this  experiment  may  be 
amplified  or  extended.  In  the  first  place  the  results 
may  be  gained  by  a  more  accurate  method.  This  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  some  sort  of  accurate  recording  de- 
vice. The  two  general  methods  which  have  been  used 
are  the  attachment  of  a  lever  to  the  eye  by  placing  a 
very  light  cup  on  the  cornea  and  connecting  it  with  the 
lever  by  a  fine  thread.  This  method  was  used  by  Huey. 
The  other  refinement  of  method  uses  photography. 
Dodge  and  Dearborn  photographed  the  bright  spot  on 


108  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

a  falling  plate.  The  kinetoscopic  method,  used  by 
Judd  in  studing  other  eye  movements,  is  also  applic- 
able in  the  study  of  eye  movements  in  reading.  The 
photographic  method  has  entirely  superseded  the 
mechanical  lever  method  on  accoimt  of  its  safety,  and 
the  fact  that  it  interferes  less  with  the  natural  eye 
movements. 

Any  of  these  refined  methods  require  somewhat 
elaborate  apparatus  and  the  mastery  of  a  moderate 
degree  of  mechanical  technique.  This  is  an  illustration 
of  the  fact  that,  in  the  laboratory  investigation  of  psy- 
chological and  educational  problems,  the  ability  to  de- 
vise and  manipulate  apparatus  of  a  suitable  sort  and 
of  a  sufficient  degree  of  delicacy  is  often  essential.  If  a 
student  is  interested  in  specialization  in  educational 
psychology,  and  the  laboratory  offers  the  requisite 
facilities,  this  experiment  could  well  be  extended  by 
taking  some  photographs  of  eye  movements  in  reading. 

The  other  mode  of  extension  of  this  experiment  is  to 
carry  further  the  method  of  observation.  Other  texts 
may  be  used  to  compare  a  variety  of  kinds  of  subject- 
matter.  The  method  may  be  refined  by  having  one 
observer  go  through  a  period  of  training  in  observation, 
and  then  observe  the  eye  movements  of  a  number  of 
the  other  students.  This  will  give  some  check  upon  the 
variability  among  the  various  observers. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    109 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Describe  the  process  of  perception  in  reading  so  far  as  the  char- 
acter of  the  eye  movements  gives  evidence  concerning  it. 

2.  What  evidence  is  there  from  the  experiment  as  to : 

a.  The  influence  of  external  conditions  on  the  eye  movements? 

b.  The  influence  of  the  apprehension  of  meaning  on  the  eye 
movements? 

8.  How  far  does  it  seem  likely  that  development  of  eye-movement 
habits  is  an  important  factor  in  learning  to  read? 

4.  Consider  the  question  of  most  favorable  size  of  type,  length  of 
line,  and  arrangement  of  line  in  printing. 

REFERENCES 

Dearborn,  W.  F.   Psychology  of  Reading. 

Huey,  E.  B.    Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  McAllister,  C.  N.,  and  Steele,  W.  M.  "Introduction 
to  a  Study  of  Eye  Movements  by  Means  of  Kinetoscope  Photo- 
graphs"; in  Psycholgical  Review,  Monograph  Supplement  (1905), 
vol.  7,  pp.  1-16. 


110  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  10 

STUDY  OF  THE  PERCEPTUAL  PROCESS  IN  READING 
,  BY  THE  TACHISTOSCOPIC  (OR  BRIEF  EXPOSURE) 
METHOD 

Problem.  In  reading,  as  in  other  products  of  per- 
ceptual development,  expertness  is  reached  by  the 
recognition  of  increasingly  complex  objects.  The  char- 
acter of  the  eye  movements  which  were  studied  in  the 
previous  experiment  indicates  that  in  adult  reading 
numbers  of  letters  and  even  words  are  grouped  or  fused 
in  the  recognition  which  occupies  a  reading  pause.  In 
this  experiment  this  fusion  is  to  be  studied  by  compar- 
ing various  cases  in  which  it  exists  in  different  degrees. 

Material  and  Method.  Since  a  reading  pause  con- 
sists in  a  very  brief  fixation  of  the  eye,  we  may  artifi- 
cially produce  reading  pauses  by  exposing  reading 
matter  for  a  brief  interval  of  time,  and  thus  study  the 
successive  reading  acts  in  isolation.  In  particular  we 
are  able  to  determine  how  much  of  different  kinds  of 
material  may  be  recognized  in  each  of  several  succes- 
sive exposures,  and  thus  how  the  recognition  may  be 
built  up.  This  method  may  be  used  to  study  the  differ- 
ences in  fusion  in  the  recognition  of  different  kinds  of 
material,  on  the  assumption  that  the  greater  the  fusion 
between  the  elements  of  the  perception  the  greater  will 
be  the  amount  which  can  be  recognized  in  a  given  ex- 
posure, or  the  fewer  will  be  the  number  of  exposures 
necessary  to  recognize  the  whole. 


"EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    IH 

The  apparatus  is  one  of  a  number  which  have  been 
devised  to  expose  objects  to  view  for  a  brief  time.  Be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  the  exposure  is  made  by  a  falling 
screen,  the  apparatus  is  called  a  fall  tachistoscope. 
An  opening  in  the  screen  exposes  the  stimulus  card  for 
a  length  of  time  depending  on  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing and  the  height  from  which  the  screen  drops.  Any 
of  the  commonly  used  tachistoscopes  will  serve  the 
purpose.  A  small  instrument  in  which  the  screen  is 
operated  by  a  spring  instead  of  by  gravity,  devised 
by  Professor  Dearborn  of  Harvard,  is  especially  to  be 
recommended  because  of  its  compactness  and  slight 
noise. 

In  making  each  exposure  the  experimenter  should 
make  sure  that  the  subject  is  in  a  favorable  position 
and  ready  to  pay  attention.  He  should  then  give  a 
warning  signal,  followed  in  about  one  second  by  the 
exposure.  He  should  be  careful  to  keep  the  interval 
between  the  warning  signal  and  the  exposure  as  con- 
stant as  possible.  The  subject  should  write  down  what 
he  was  able  to  recognize  after  each  exposure,  and 
should  not  give  his  reply  aloud  to  the  experimenter. 
The  experimenter  should  not  look  at  the  face  of  the 
cards.  The  exposures  of  each  card  should  continue 
until  the  subject  is  satisfied,  but  he  should  not  be  told 
whether  or  not  his  recognition  is  correct.  The  next 
card  may  then  be  shown.  The  subject  should  make 
introspective  notes. 

We  shall  first  compare  the  amount  of  fusion  which 


11«  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

exists  in  the  recognition  of  groups  of  digits  and  groups 
of  the  same  number  of  letters  in  short  words.  The 
lists  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  which  see. 

The  second  comparison  is  between  groups  of  non- 
sense syllables  and  groups  of  short  words  arranged  in 
a  sentence,  and  containing  approximately  the  same 
number  of  letters. 

The  third  comparison  is  between  the  recognition  of 
familiar  and  unfamiliar  words. 

The  fourth  group  of  words  is  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  "  proof  reader's  fallacy  "  —  that  is,  the 
neglect  of  errors  in  words.  The  existence  of  this  neglect 
is  an  evidence  of  fusion  or  recognition  of  the  group  as  a 
whole,  rather  than  of  each  unit  for  itself.  The  subject 
should  not  know  which  words  contain  errors,  nor 
should  he  be  required  to  detect  them  or  make  special 
effort  to  recognize  details. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  results  may  be  made 
comparable  by  dividing  in  each  case  the  number  of 
objects  (letters  or  digits)  exposed  by  the  number  of 
exposures  necessary  to  recognize  them,  to  give  what 
we  may  for  convenience  call  the  average  number  of 
objects  recognized  per  exposure.  The  larger  this  num- 
ber the  greater  we  may  assume  the  fusion  among  the 
objects  to  have  been.  The  individual  reports  should 
include  a  calculation  of  this  number  of  objects  recog- 
nized per  exposure  for  the  different  classes  of  stimuli, 
with  some  interpretation  of  the  result.  The  general 
report  should  generalize  the  individual  results  and 
determine  individual  differences. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    113 


TABLE  X.    THE  AVERAGE  NUMBER  OP  LETTERS  OR 
DIGITS  RECOGNIZED  PER  EXPOSURE 

{Baaed  on  the  total  number  of  letters  or  digits  exposed,  divided  by  the 
number  of  exposures  necessary  to  recognize  them) 


Series 

Individ- 
ual 

•■§ 

-1 

Ji 

11 

11 

II 

Is 

{ 

'^ 

►^ 

03 

:5 

«5 

:5 

5 

>*< 

A 

1.5 

4.3 

2.0 

4.3 

1.2 

5.6 

3.0 

3.1 

B 

1.2 

5.0 

2.1 

4.4 

3.4 

7.0 

3.6 

3.8 

C 

.9 

5.2 

1.1 

4.3 

.7 

12.0 

4.5 

4.1 

D 

1.5 

6.0 

2.1 

5.9 

1.8 

7.0 

5.5 

4.3 

E 

1.5 

4.5 

2.9 

6.3 

1.2 

10.0 

5.4 

4.5 

F 

1.2 

4.0 

2.0 

6.5 

1.8 

14.0 

4.3 

4.8 

G 

1.5 

6.0 

2.9 

7.6 

2.6 

10.5 

5.0 

5.2 

H 

2.6 

5.5 

2.4 

7.2 

1.6 

12.0 

5.5 

5.3 

I 

2.7 

4.7 

1.2 

7.2 

6.7 

14.0 

6.3 

5.8 

J 

1.9 

6.0 

2.3 

8.3 

3.9 

14.0 

5.4 

5.9 

K 

2.4 

5.0 

2.7 

6.9 

2.6 

14.0 

8.5 

6.0 

L 

1.5 

5.1 

2.0 

7.6 

3.9 

14.0 

8.5 

6.1 

M 

1.9 

5.0 

3.6 

10.8 

3.4 

14.0 

7.7 

6.6 

N 

1.8 

5.8 

3.8 

10.1 

3.3 

14.0 

8.4 

6.7 

0 

2.0 

6.0 

3.5 

8.2 

6.5 

14.0 

8.5 

7.0 

P 

2.0 

6.0 

3.7 

13.0 

4.3 

14.0 

8.0 

7.3 

Q 

1.7 

5.7 

3.0 

15.0 

8.7 

13.0 

7.3 

7.8 

R 

2.0 

6.0 

3.1 

9.6 

13.0 

14.0 

7.3 

7.9 

Average 

1.7 

5.3 

2.6 

8.0 

3.9 

12.1 

6.3 

5.7 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  summary  of  the 
results  of  a  group  of  eighteen  individuals  is  given  in 
Table  X.  The  main  facts  are  evident  without  the  ne- 


114  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

cessity  of  a  minute  analysis.  A  comparison  of  both  the 
individual  and  the  average  results  of  the  various  series 
or  kinds  of  stimuli  makes  clear  the  wide  difference  in 
the  range  of  objects  which  can  be  recognized  at  a 
glance,  or  which  can  be  apprehended  simultaneously, 
according  to  the  degree  to  which  the  elements  are  or- 
ganized. These  results  do  not  in  every  case  indicate 
the  limit  of  simultaneous  apprehension  for  a  particular 
kind  of  stimulus,  since  the  groups  (words  or  sentences) 
were  not  in  all  cases  large  enough  to  reach  the  limit  of 
ability  of  some  of  the  individuals.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered also  that  most  of  the  individuals  were  unprac- 
ticed  in  tachistoscopic  work. 

Wide  individual  differences  are  also  brought  out  by 
the  results,  though  these  are  to  be  somewhat  dis- 
counted by  differences  in  procedure  of  the  various  ex- 
perimenters. In  general,  the  individual  differences  are 
similar  in  the  various  series,  indicating  that  a  similar 
factor  is  present  in  the  recognition  of  the  various  kinds 
of  objects.  These  differences  may  be  subjected  to 
further  analysis  by  turning  the  individual  scores  into 
percentages  of  the  average,  and  noting  the  percentage 
differences  between  the  extremes  in  each  series.  The 
correlations  between  the  standing  in  the  various  series 
may  also  be  worked  out.  One  of  the  graphic  methods, 
to  be  described  in  connection  with  Experiment  No.  16, 
would  be  useful  for  this  purpose.^  There  is  no  evidence 

^  See  the  chapter  in  Whipple  for  references  to  Messmer,  Meu- 
mann,  and  others  who  have  made  a  distinction  between  objective 
and  subjective  observers. 


:  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    115 

in  these  results  to  support  the  view  that  there  are 
clearly  separated  types,  however  we  may  interpret  the 
individual  differences  which  appear. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  It  is  a  profitable  exer- 
cise to  identify  the  individual  subjects  in  the  various 
experiments,  and  determine  how  far  individual  differ- 
ences in  certain  of  those  which  are  similar  show  corre- 
lation. The  results  of  this  experiment  may  thus  be 
correlated  with  the  results  of  Experiment  No.  12, 
"  Apprehension  of  Number." 

The  experiment  may  be  extended  by  using  still  other 
kinds  of  objects,  such  as  those  of  the  spot  pattern  test 
(see  Whipple  for  description).  Children's  recognition 
of  words  may  also  be  studied  and  compared  with  their 
reading  ability  in  general.  This  has  proven  to  be  a 
valuable  diagnostic  test. 


lie  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Is  there  any  resemblance  between  the  perceptual  process  in 
reading  and  in  the  apprehension  of  the  figures  studied  in 
Experiment  No.  2? 

2.  Argue  for  or  against  the  proposition  that  adult  or  developed 
recognition  of  words,  or  groups  of  words,  implies  previous 
analysis  and  synthesis  of  the  elements  of  which  it  is  composed. 
Because  the  adult  does  not  notice  all  the  details  in  his  rapid 
recognition  of  a  word,  is  his  recognition  like  that  of  the  child 
who  is  in  the  first  stages  of  reading? 

S.  Why  are  groups  of  digits  not  recognized  as  are  groups  of  let- 
ters? What  is  present  in  the  one  and  not  in  the  other? 

4.  What  individual  differences  are  there  with  reference  to  the 
matter  referred  to  in  question  3  (the  recognition  of  the  ele- 
ments of  a  word)? 

5.  Is  there  evidence  of  distinct  types  ?  If  not  what  is  the  nature 
of  the  differences? 

6.  Are  there  disadvantages  in  very  narrow  or  very  broad  scope 
of  attention  in  word  recognition?  What  would  be  the  effect 
of  the  two  on  reading  ? 

7.  Does  the  difference  in  the  fusion  of  different  kinds  of  words 
indicate  anything  with  regard  to  the  possibility  of  increasing 
the  scope  of  attention  by  training? 

REFERENCES 

Same  as  for  Experiment  No.  7,  and  in  addition: 

Freeman,  F.  N.  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches,  chap;  4. 
(Also  on  the  other  school  subjects.) 

Judd,  C.  H.    Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers,  chap.  vin. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Testa,  vol.  I, 
chap.  vn. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    117 

Experiment  No.  11 
efficiency  of  reading 

Problem.  The  practical  application  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  psychological  nature  of  reading  may  be 
made  by  studying  the  conditions  which  determine  the 
efficiency  of  reading.  There  are  at  least  three  elements 
to  be  taken  into  account  in  a  complete  determination 
of  the  efficiency  of  reading;  namely,  (1)  the  rate  of 
reading,  (2)  the  amount  which  is  retained,  and  (3)  the 
extent  to  which  what  is  read  suggests  relevant  trains  of 
thought.  The  first  two  elements  may  be  regarded  as 
concerning  efficiency  of  assimilation  of  what  is  read, 
and  the  third  element  as  related  to  the  ability  to  use 
what  has  been  read.  Previous  experiments  have  dealt 
with  the  first  two  elements.  On  this  account,  and  be- 
cause these  are  the  elements  most  easily  measured, 
they  are  made  the  subject  of  this  experiment.  Atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  fact,  however,  that  final  conclu- 
sions cannot  be  drawn  until  the  third  element  also  is 
studied. 

Material  and  method.  In  the  present  experiment, 
measurements  will  be  made  of  the  speed  of  reading  and 
of  the  amount  retained  in  reading  two  halves  from 
a  passage  to  be  selected  by  the  instructor.  The  passage 
should  be  ten  pages  or  more  in  length  and  of  uniform 
subject-matter.  A  division  should  be  made  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  passage.   The  subject  should  first  read  the 


118  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

first  half  of  the  passage  at  his  ordinary  rate,  keeping 
the  time  with  a  stop-watch.  He  should  then  immedi- 
ately write  what  he  can  remember  of  it,  trying  to  re- 
produce the  ideas,  but  not  necessarily  the  exact  words. 
Let  him  then  continue  to  read  the  passage,  now  reading 
as  rapidly  as  possible  consistent  with  a  clear  grasp  of 
the  meaning.  When  he  has  finished,  he  should  measure 
the  time  required  to  read  it  and  write  what  he  remem- 
bers of  it. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  individual  reports  should 
show  clearly  —  first,  how  many  words  per  second  were 
read  in  each  passage;  and,  secondly,  what  proportion 
of  each  passage  was  remembered.  There  are  two 
methods  of  determining  how  much  is  remembered  of  a 
passage.  We  may  designate  these  the  verbal  method 
and  the  idea  method.  Each  individual  in  making  up 
his  report  may  use  the  verbal  method.  An  exact  form 
of  the  verbal  method  is  to  count  the  number  of  the 
particular  words  which  were  used  in  the  original  which 
are  also  to  be  found  in  the  reproduction.  The  simpler 
procedure  which  may  be  used  in  this  experiment  con- 
sists in  counting  the  number  of  words  of  the  reproduc- 
tion which  express  ideas  occurring  in  the  original,  and 
finding  the  ratio  of  their  number  to  the  number  of 
words  in  the  original.  This  is  of  course  only  a  rough 
approximation,  since  the  same  idea  may  be  expressed 
by  one  person  in  a  few  words  and  by  another  person 
in  many.  For  the  comparison  of  the  two  reproductions 
by  the  same  person,  however,  it  may  serve. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    119 

For  the  comparison  of  the  amount  which  is  repro- 
duced by  the  diflferent  individuals,  which  is  the  concern 
of  the  person  who  makes  the  general  report,  the  idea 
method  is  fairer.  By  this  method  the  original  passage 
is  divided  into  thought  units. ^  The  thought  units  may 
be  made  more  or  less  comprehensive,  and  it  is  therefore 
desirable  that  one  person  grade  all  the  papers.  Hence 
this  method  is  recommended  for  the  general  report 
only.  The  one  essential  is  that  the  principle  of  division 
into  units  be  the  same  throughout. 

A  third  method  which  is  useful  in  some  cases  is  to 
measure  the  correctness  of  answers  to  questions  in  the 
passage  read. 

The  problems  which  should  be  attacked  by  means  of 
the  data  which  are  furnished  by  this  experiment  are  in 
the  main  two:  (1)  What  is  the  relation  between  the 
speed  of  reading  and  the  amounts  which  may  be  repro- 
duced? and  (2)  Through  what  modifications  of  the 
mental  process  is  the  speed  of  reading  increased?  Each 
individual  may  gain  light  on  these  questions  by  ana- 
lyzing objective  and  introspective  results  from  his 
own  experiments.  The  general  report  should  contain  a 
summary  of  such  facts  as  are  brought  out  in  the  indi- 
vidual reports  and  should,  in  addition,  study  the  corre- 
lation between  speed  and  reproduction  when  diflferent 
individuals  are  compared. 

To  give  an  exact  measure  of  such  correlation  re- 

*  Cf.  C.  H.  Judd,  "Reading  Tests";  Elementary  School  Teacher 
(1914).  vol.  14,  p.  371. 


120 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


quires  the  application  of  a  statistical  method.  A  num- 
ber of  such  methods  are  described  by  Whipple  in  his 
Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  chap.  iii. 
Method  B,  the  Pearson  Method  adapted  to  Rank- 
Differences,  may  be  used  in  this  case  or  the  more  de- 
tailed tabular  form  of  statement  illustrated  below  may 
be  employed. 

TABLE  XI 


Individ- 
ual 

Words  per 
second 

No.  of  tDords 
reproduced 

No,  of  ideas 
reproduced 

Parti 

Part  II 

Parti 

PaHlI 

Parti 

Pari  11 

A 

B 

C 

D...... 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

B 

S 

u 

V 

3.7 
2.9 
2.2 
2.9 
2.9 
5.6 
8.2 
3.5 
2.7 
2.7 
4.7 
2.8 
6.9 
2.9 
4.7 
3.9 
5.3 
2.9 
2.7 
3.3 
5.5 

4.9 
3.7 
3.4 
8.7 
3.7 
7.0 
4.2 
3.4 
6.0 
3.6 
4.9 
4.9 
4.8 
3.7 
5.8 
9.3 
5.2 
5.7 
8.7 
4.5 
4.1 

710 
270 
600 
251 
270 
826 
556 
187 
486 
352 
235 
396 
500 
870 
425 
225 
8*9 
898 
683 
705 
307 

772 
325 
642 
291 
846 
120 
234 
174 
774 
248 
838 
484 
600 
825 
413 
156 
518 
888 
615 
675 
840 

83 
23 
26 
19 
23 
12 
19 
6 
28 
17 
15 
27 
16 
16 
23 
15 
39 
22 
29 
55 
28 

26 
29 
31 
19 
24 
9 
9 
10 
84 
15 
21 
81 
18 
17 
18 
11 
29 
24 
45 
54 
26 

Total... 

77.8 

100.2 

8406 

8723 

491 

600 

Average. 

3.7 

4.77 

400.8 

415.4 

28.4 

23.8 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS   121 


TABLE  XII.  THE  DATA  OF  TABLE  XI  REARRANGED 
TO  FACILITATE  VARIOUS  COMPARISONS 


Relation  between  rapidity  of  reading 
the  firtl  and  second  passages 

Relation  between  rapidity  of  reading 
and  increase  in  rapidity 

A 

B 

c 

D 

1 

.1 

fi 
1^ 

1 
1^ 

■3 

1 

1 

1 

1-^ 

1 

11 

.s 

■s 
1 

•S 

a 

•i 

as 

1 

6.9 
6.6 
6.6 
6.3 

4.7 

4.8 
4.1 
7.0 
6.2 
4.9 

1 
2 
3 
4 
6 

9.3 
7.0 
6.0 
6.8 
6.7 

3.9 
6.6 

2.7 
4.7 
2.9 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6.9 
6.5 
5.5 
5.3 

4.7 

-2.1 
-1.4 

1.5 
-0.1 

0.2 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6.4 
3.3 

2.8 
2.1 
1.5 

3.9 

2 

2  7 

8 

2.9 

4 

2.8 

5 

6  5 

Average 

6.6 

6.2 

6.8 

3.9 

5.6 

-0.4 

3.0 

3.8 

6 

4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 

6.8 
9.3 
4.9 
3.4 
4.6 
4.2 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

6.2 
4.9 
4.9 
4.9 
4.8 
4.6 

6.3 

4.7 
3.7 
2.8 
6.9 
3.3 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 

1.1 
5.4 
1.2 
-0.1 
-1.2 
1.0 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

3  7 

7 

3  3 

8 

2  2 

9 

4  7 

10 

3  2 

11 

2  7 

Average 

3.7 

6.3 

4.9 

4.6 

3.7 

2.0 

1.1 

3.S 

Without  7... 

3.7 

4.6 

4.9 

4.4 

3.7 

0.9 

12 

2.8 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

3.7 
3.7 
3.7 
3.7 
6.7 

12 
13 
14 
16 
16 

4.2 
4.1 
3.7 
3.7 
3.7 

3.2 
5.5 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
2.8 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 

2  7 

13 

2  9 

14 

2  9 

16 

2  9 

16 

2  9 

Av«rage 

2.9 

4.1 

3.9 

3.5 

2.9 

1.2 

0.8 

2.9 

17 

2.8 

2.7 
2.7 
2.7 
2.2 

4.9 
6.0 
3.6 
3.7 
3.4 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

3.7 
3.7 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 

2.9 
2.7 
2.7 
3.5 

2.2 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

2.8 
2.7 
2.7 
2.7 

2.2 

2.1 
3.3 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

0.2 
-0.1 
-0.1 
-1.4 
-2.1 

4  1 

18 

3  5 

19    ...    .    .    . 

5  3 

20 

6  5 

21 

6  9 

Average 

2.6 

4.3 

3.6 

%.8 

2.6 

1.7 

-0.7 

5.2 

Final  Average 

3.70 

4.77 

4.77 

3.70 

3.70 

1.06 

1.2 

3.7 

Median 

3.2 

4.6 

4.6 

3.2 

3.2 

1.0 

1.0 

3.2 

122 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XII   {continued) 


Relation  bettceen  rapidity  qf  reading 
and  number  of  words  reproduced  in  the 
first  reading 

Relation  bettoeen  rapidity  of 

reading  and  number  of  words 

reproduced  in  the  second  reading 

E 

F 

G 

H 

1 

.1 

It 

S.I 

1 

1 

1 
2 
3 
4 
6 

1" 

.1 

1^ 

1 

J 

•t-S 

e.s 

If 
1^ 

1 
1 

Is 
1 

1 

1 

6.9 
6.5 
6.5 
5.3 

4.7 

500 
807 
326 
359 
235 

710 
705 
583 
556 
500 

3.7 
3.3 

2.7 
3.2 

2.2 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

9.3 
7.0 
6.0 
6.8' 

6.7 

166 
120 

774 
413 
838 

1 
2 
S 
4 
6 

774 
772 
675 
642 
616 

n  n 

ft 

4  9 

8 

4.5 

4 

8.4 

£ 

8.7 

Average 

6.6 

345 

611 

3.0 

6.8 

860 

696 

4.5 

6 

4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.6 
3.3 
3.2 

426 
225 
710 
187 
705 
556 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

500 
486 
425 
396 
393 
370 

6.9 

2.7 
4.7 
2.8 
2.9 
2.9 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

6.2 
4.9 
4.9 
4.9 
4.8 
4.6 

613 

772 
338 
484 
600 
675 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

600 
513 
484 
413 
346 
340 

4.8 

7 

6.2 

8 

4.9 

0 

6.8 

10 

8.7 

11 

4.1 

Average 

3.7 

468 

428 

8.8 

4.9 

564 

449 

4.8 

12 

2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

270 
251 
270 
370 
893 

12 
13 
14 
16 
16 

359 
352 
326 
807 
270 

6.8 
2.7 
5.6 
6.6 
2.9 

12 
13 
14 
16 
16 

4.2 

4.1 
3.7 
3.7 
3.7 

234 
840 
826 
291 
346 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

338 
838 
826 
826 
291 

4  ft 

13 

6  7 

14 

S  7 

la 

3.7 

18 

3  7 

Average 

2.9 

311 

323 

4.8 

8.9 

307 

322 

4.S 

17 

2.8 
2.7 
2.7 
2.7 

2.2 

398 
486 
352 
683 
600 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

270 
251 
235 
225 
187 

2.9 
2.9 
4.7 
3.9 
3.6 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

3.7 
8.7 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 

3.6 

4.8 

325 
615 
248 
642 
174 

17 
18 
19 

20 
21 

248 
234 
174 
156 
120 

3  A 

18 

4  « 

19 

3.4 

SO 

9  3 

81 

7  0 

Average 

2.6 

464 



234 

3.6 

401 

186 

6.5 

Final  average 

3.7 

400 

400 

8.7 

416 

416 

4.8 

Median 

3.2 

370 

870 

3.2 

4.5 

340 

340 

4.5 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    123 


TABLE  XII  {continuecO 


Relation  between  increate  in  rapidity 

and  increate  or  decrease  in  word*  and  ideal 

reproduced 

Relation  between  rate  of  reading, 

gain  or  loss  in  rate  arid  gain  or 

lost  in  reproduction 

I 

J 

1 

g 

i1 

ii 

.1 

eg 

.8 

3 

1 

1 

ll 

•|0Q 

.1 

■8 

1 

! 

.g 

j 

.g 

1 

5.4 
8.3 
2.8 
2.1 
1.6 

-  69 
288 

-  55 

-  88 
-206 

-  4 

6 
2 
4 

-  S 

3.0 

2.7 
2.9 
2.8 
5.5 

21. 
5. 
20. 
19. 
17. 

6.9 
5.6 
5.5 
5.3 

4.7 

-2.1 

1.6 

-1.4 

-0.1 

.2 

100 

-206 

83 

154 
-  12 

2 

g 

-  3 

8 

—  2 

4 

—10 

5    

—  6 

Average 

SO 

9 

1 

3.6 

5.6 

-   .4 

14 

-  4 

e 

1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

62 

-  80 
142 

-  12 
-322 

32 

-  7 

-  1 
6 

-  5 

-10 
16 

3.7 
8.3 
2.2 
4.7 
3.2 
2.7 

9. 

1. 

6. 
18. 

7. 
10. 

4.7 
3.9 
8.7 
8.5 
3.3 
3.2 

1.1 
6.4 
1.2 
-0.1 
-1.2 
1.0 

103 

-  69 

-  62 

-  18 

-  80 
-322 

6 

7 

—  4 

8 

-  7 

0 

10 

10    

—  1 

11 

-10 

Average 

1.1 

-  21 

-  0.33 

3.3 

8.7 

1.6 

-  47 

-  1 

12 

.9 
.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 

-104 
65 
40 
76 

-  45 

-  2 
6 
.... 

1 

2.7 
2.9 
2.0 
2.9 
2.9 

3. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 

2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

2.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 

-  65 
66 
40 
76 

-  45 

2 

IS 

6 

14 

16 

1 

16 

1 

Average 

.8 

4 

1 

2.9 

2.9 

1.2 

14 

2.6 

17 

.2 

-  .1 

-  .1 
-1.4 
-2.1 

103 
-  13 
154 
33 
100 

6 

10 

-10 

-  2 
2 

4.7 
8.5 
5.3 
5.5 
6.9 

4. 

2. 
11. 
12. 

8. 

2.8 

2.7 
2.7 
2.7 
2.2 

2.1 
3.3 
1.0 
.9 
1.2 

88 
288 

32 

-104 

142 

4 

18    

6 

19 

16 

SO    

-  2 

81 

ff 

Average 

-   .7 

75 

1 

5.2 

2.6 

1.7 

89 

6 

Final  average 

1.2 

15 

-     .71 

3.7 

3.7 

1.1 

16 

.75 

Median 

1.0 

33 

1 

3.2 

3.2 

1.0 

33 

1 

124  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  summary  results  of 
this  experiment  are  presented  in  Table  XI.  These 
results  have  been  reformulated  to  facilitate  comparison 
in  Table  XII.  The  data  are  presented  in  the  general 
table  in  order  that  one  may  follow  the  record  of  any 
individual  throughout  the  table.  In  Table  XII  the 
individuals  are  rearranged  in  each  section  so  as  to  put 
the  scores  into  regularly  descending  order. 

The  first  comparison  to  be  made  is  between  the  ra- 
pidity of  reading  in  the  first  and  second  halves  of  the 
selections.  The  increase  in  rapidity  as  a  result  of  the 
effort  to  read  rapidly  is  large  for  the  class  as  a  whole, 
being  27  per  cent  if  we  use  the  averages,  and  41  per 
cent  if  we  use  the  medians. 

The  more  particular  question  which  is  presented  by 
our  results  concerns  the  relationship  between  the 
standing  of  the  individual  subjects  in  rapidity  of  read- 
ing of  the  two  halves  of  the  selections.  Are  those  who 
read  rapidly  in  the  reading  at  the  ordinary  rate  the 
most  rapid  readers  when  they  try  to  increase  the  speed? 
This  is  the  type  of  problem  which  involves  the  calcula- 
tion of  correlation.  K  the  order  of  the  scores  in  the  two 
series  is  the  same,  or  if  there  is  any  more  correspon- 
dence than  would  be  present  by  pure  chance,  the  cor- 
relation is  positive.  If  the  order  is  reversed,  partly  or 
wholly,  the  correlation  is  negative.  The  more  precise 
methods  of  calculating  or  representing  the  degree  of 
correlation  will  be  illustrated  in  Experiment  No.  16. 
We  shall  be  content  here  with  the  arrangement  of  the 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     125 

data  in  such  a  way  as  to  facilitate  an  inspection  of 
them,  and  the  detection  of  the  outstanding  facts  of 
correlation. 

Sections  A  and  B  present  the  data  regarding  the  cor> 
relation  between  the  speed  of  reading  of  the  class  in  the 
two  parts  of  the  selection.  In  Section  A  the  individu- 
als are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
they  read  the  first  half,  and  in  Section  B  in  the  order  of 
rapidity  of  reading  the  second  half.  As  a  very  rough 
method  of  estimating  the  correlation  the  series  are 
divided  into  four  approximately  equal  groups,  and 
the  average  is  given  for  each  group.  The  averages,  of 
course,  decrease  as  one  goes  down  the  column  in  the 
left-hand  column  in  each  section.  If  the  averages  of 
the  right-hand  column  also  decrease  in  the  same  order 
there  is  probably  some  correlation.  Inspection  of  the 
individual  scores  makes  possible  more  detailed  state- 
ments. 

It  appears  that  there  is  some  correlation  between 
the  rapidity  of  the  first  and  second  readings.  In  gen- 
eral, those  who  read  rapidly  in  the  first  part  read  rap- 
idly also  in  the  second  part.  Those  who  read  most 
rapidly  in  the  second  part,  however,  were  not  as  rapid 
in  the  first  part  as  were  the  second  group.  Those  who 
read  most  rapidly  the  first  time  apparently  were  read- 
ing nearly  at  their  maximum  and  did  not  increase  their 
speed  (with  one  exception),  but  actually  fell  off  in  the 
second  reading.  All  the  other  groups,  as  appears  from 
Section  C,  increased  their  speed  materially.  But  while 


126  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

some  of  the  slow  readers  in  the  first  half  of  the  test  read 
rapidly  in  the  second  half,  those  who  were  slow  when 
they  read  under  pressure  were  in  the  main  slow  when 
they  read  at  their  natural  rate.  We  may  conclude  from 
these  facts  that  those  who  read  most  rapidly  in  the  test 
for  natural  reading  were  reading  about  as  fast  as  they 
could.  Some  of  those  who  read  more  slowly  were  actu- 
ally capable  of  more  rapid  reading  than  the  most  rapid 
readers  in  the  first  test;  and  some  of  those  who  were 
toward  the  bottom  of  the  class  in  the  first  test  ranked 
in  the  top  quarter  in  the  second.  Some  of  the  slow 
readers  in  the  first  test,  however,  while  capable  of  some 
increase  in  speed,  remained  at  the  bottom;  and  very 
rarely  did  a  rapid  reader  in  the  first  test  fall  toward  the 
bottom  in  the  second. 

Sections  C  and  D  indicate  that  the  slower  readers  in 
the  first  test,  while  they  in  general  remained  below  the 
rapid  readers  when  they  intentionally  speeded  up,  yet 
gained  more,  absolutely,  and  very  much  more  rela- 
tively, than  their  rapid  companions.  These  facts  taken 
together  indicate  that,  so  far  as  a  single  test  can  be 
relied  upon,  the  slow  readers  were  slow  partly  because 
of  some  native  or  deep-seated  acquired  difference,  but 
that  the  difference  was  in  most  cases  greater  than 
necessary  since  it  could  be  overcome  by  a  little  effort. 

From  a  study  of  Sections  E  to  H,  which  show  the 
relationship  between  rapidity  of  reading  and  the 
amount  which  is  reproduced  it  appears  that  there  is  a 
diversity  of  cases.  If  we  examine  Sections  E  and  G  we 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    127 

see  that  some  rapid  readers  remember  a  large  amount 
of  what  they  read  —  for  example,  No.  1  in  Section  E 
and  No.  3  in  Section  G.  It  also  appears  from  the  same 
sections  that  some  of  the  slow  readers  —  as  Nos.  18, 
20,  and  21  in  Section  E,  and  Nos.  18  and  20  in  Section 
G  —  reproduce  a  large  amount.  In  the  same  manner  it 
may  be  shown  that  there  are  both  fast  readers  and  slow 
readers  who  remembered  little  of  what  they  read. 
Columns  F  and  H  show  the  converse  of  these  facts. 

While  there  are  individual  cases  which  show  a  cor- 
respondence between  speed  and  reproduction,  and 
other  cases  in  which  there  is  a  wide  discrepancy  be- 
tween the  two  elements,  there  may  still  be  in  general 
a  positive  or  a  negative  correlation.  If  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  correlation,  either  positive  or  negative,  it 
should  be  indicated  by  the  averages  of  the  groups  in 
the  second  column  of  each  section.  There  is  clearly  no 
strongly  marked  positive  correlation,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  some  negative  correlation.  In  each  case  the  five 
most  rapid  readers  reproduce  less  than  the  five  slowest, 
and  the  five  who  reproduce  most  read  more  slowly  than 
the  five  who  reproduce  least. 

These  facts  may  be  summarized  in  the  following 
statements:  — 

Some  individuals  read  rapidly  without  sacrifice  to 
comprehension,  while  others  attain  speed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  comprehension.  The  latter  are  slightly  more 
numerous  than  the  former. 

Some  individuals  read  slowly  without  a  correspond- 


128  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

ing  gain  in  comprehension,  while  others  sacrifice  speed 
to  an  unusually  high  degree  of  comprehension.  The 
latter  are  slightly  more  numerous  than  the  former. 

Section  I  presents  the  data  for  the  comparison  of  the 
rate  of  increase  or  decrease  in  speed  from  the  first  to 
the  second  reading,  with  the  increase  or  decrease  in  the 
number  of  words  or  ideas  reproduced.  There  is  a  wide 
diversity  among  individuals  and  no  clear  general  re- 
sult. The  most  that  can  be  said  in  general  is  that  the 
increase  in  speed  for  the  class  as  a  whole,  which 
amounts  to  twelve  words  per  second  on  the  average,  or 
about  32  per  cent,  does  not  result  in  any  diminution  of 
the  amount  reproduced.  This  appears  to  be  a  clear 
gain  for  the  class  as  a  whole. 

Among  individuals  there  is  a  great  diversity.  Indi- 
vidual No.  2,  for  example,  increased  3.3  words  per 
second  in  rate  of  reading,  and  gained  288  words  and  6 
ideas  in  reproduction.  This  person  read  slowly  in  the 
first  reading,  the  rate  being  2.7  words  per  second.  An- 
other individual.  No.  17,  who  read  at  approximately 
the  same  rate  during  the  two  readings  (4.7  and  4.9 
respectively)  increased  the  amount  reproduced  by  103 
words  and  6  ideas.  On  the  other  hand.  No.  5,  who 
gained  1.5  words  in  rate  of  reading,  lost  by  206  words 
and  3  ideas  in  amount  reproduced.  This  person  was 
a  fast  reader,  reading  at  the  rate  of  5.5  words,  and 
probably  made  too  great  an  effort  at  speed  in  the 
second  reading. 
'   These  cases  suggest  that  by  taking  into  considera- 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     129 

tion  the  rate  of  reading  as  well  as  the  gain,  a  relation- 
ship with  gain  or  loss  in  reproduction  may  be  discov- 
ered. This  proves  to  be  the  case.  In  order  to  display 
the  relationship  Section  J  of  the  table  is  constructed, 
in  which  the  individuals  are  classified  on  the  basis  of 
rate  of  reading  in  the  first  test. 

Of  the  five  most  rapid  readers  the  only  one  who  in- 
creased materially  in  speed  of  reading.  No.  5,  lost 
heavily  in  the  amount  reproduced.  The  other  four, 
who  either  lost  in  speed  or  gained  but  slightly,  either 
gained  in  words  or  ideas  or  lost  but  very  slightly.  Of 
the  five  slow  readers,  on  the  other  hand,  foiu"  gained 
materially  in  speed  as  well  as  in  the  amount  repro- 
duced in  both  words  and  ideas.  The  slowest  readers 
were  benefited  in  every  way  by  their  increase  in 
speed.  In  the  middle  half  of  the  whole  group  the 
result  is  not  so  uniform,  but  in  general  the  slower 
readers  of  the  third  group  gained  in  reproduction  as 
well  as  in  speed,  while  the  faster  readers  of  the  second 
group  gained  in  speed  but  lost  in  reproduction. 

The  results  of  this  comparison  between  the  increase 
in  speed  and  the  increase  in  reproduction,  taken  to- 
gether with  the  relationship  between  the  absolute  rate 
of  reading  and  the  amount  reproduced,  warrant  a 
statement  which,  while  there  are  exceptions,  holds  in 
general  so  far  as  this  class  is  concerned.  This  state- 
ment is  as  follows:  The  most  rapid  readers  in  the 
majority  of  cases  sacrifice  comprehension  to  speed,  and 
the  slowest  readers  sacrifice  speed  to  comprehension. 


180  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Furthermore  the  slow  readers  can  increase  the  speed 
materially  without  loss  in  comprehension,  or  even  with 
a  gain,  while  an  increase  in  speed  among  the  rapid 
readers  usually  results  in  a  loss  in  comprehension. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  These  conclusions 
demand  extension  and  verification  through  the  collec- 
tion of  results  from  larger  numbers.  One  very  useful 
extension  could  be  made  by  giving  several  tests  with 
different  kinds  of  subject-matter  to  the  same  group  of 
individuals.  A  single  test  is  never  an  adequate  basis  on 
which  to  measure  the  ability  of  an  individual.  It  would 
be  well  to  make  a  number  of  tests  with  a  group  of  per- 
sons without  saying  anything  about  speed  at  first,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  relia,ble  measure  of  reading  ability  at 
the  ordinary  rate.  The  next  step  would  be  to  give  a 
whole  series  of  texts  to  be  read  rapidly  in  order  to  find 
out  the  amount  of  improvement  in  speed  of  which  the 
various  individuals  were  capable,  the  amount  of  prac- 
tice to  bring  each  one  up  to  his  approximate  maximum, 
and  the  final  effect  of  the  increase  in  rate  on  the  com- 
prehension of  the  various  individuals. 

A  less  extensive  experiment  than  the  foregoing 
might  well  be  made  by  repeating  the  experiment  with 
various  kinds  of  subject-matter,  as  essays,  fiction,  and 
poetry.  Another  variation  which  usually  gives  very 
good  results  consists  in  having  a  limited  number  of 
individuals  —  even  so  few  as  one  will  do  —  carry  on  a 
practice  experiment  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
rate  of  reading. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     131 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

In  addition  to  the  specific  problems  mentioned  above,  the  follow- 
ing questions  may  be  discussed:  — 

1.  What  seems  in  your  experience  to  be  the  effect  of  the  following 
factors  in  determining  the  rate  of  reading:  eye-movement  hab- 
its; the  amount  of  inner  articulation  used;  the  rapidity  of  appre- 
hension of  meaning;  attention  to  word  characteristics  (diction, 
shades  of  meaning,  soimd,  characteristics  as  used  in  alliteration, 
onomatopoeia,  etc.),  melody,  balance  of  sentence  structure? 

2.  Should  you  say  that  the  best  speed  of  reading  of  different  sorts 
of  subject-matter,  e.g.  scientific  prose,  essays,  novels,  poetry,  is 
the  same?  What  considerations  determine  the  best  speed  for 
these  different  kinds  of  material? 

8.  How  may  speed  of  reading  be  increased? 

4.  Has  rapid  reading  any  conceivable  advantage  beside  economy 
of  time  ? 

5.  Should  speed  of  reading  be  uniform  ? 

6.  How  may  one  strike  the  proper  balance  between  speed  and 
apprehension  of  meaning? 

7.  Propose  means  of  improving  the  apprehension  of  meaning. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman,  F.  N.  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches,  chap.  4. 

Judd,  C.  H.  Measuring  the  Work  of  the  Public  Sdwols.  Cleveland 
Foundation. 

Starch,  D.  "The  Measurement  of  EflBciency  in  Reading";  in 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (1915),  vol.  6,  pp.  1-24. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "The  Measurement  of  Ability  in  Reading"; 
in  Teachers  College  Record  (1914),  vol.  15,  pp.  1-67. 

Waldo,  K.  D.  "Tests  in  Reading  in  the  Sycamore  Schools";  in 
Elementary  School  Journal  (1915),  vol.  15,  pp.  251-68. 


mt  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  12 
apprehension  op  number 

Problem.  The  abstract  idea  of  number  is  the  out- 
growth of  various  forms  of  concrete  experience,  and  in 
most  if  not  all  cases  it  never  becomes  entirely  independ- 
ent of  some  sort  of  imagery  which  reflects  concrete 
experience  in  visual  or  mimetic  terms.  The  study  of 
visual  experiences  which  form  the  basis  of  number 
apprehension,  and  which  exhibit  it  in  simple  and  more 
elaborate  forms,  will  therefore  give  some  insight  into 
the  means  by  which  the  idea  of  number  is  developed. 

There  are  a  variety  of  forms  of  concrete  experience 
through  which  the  idea  of  number  may  be  developed. 
One  is  counting,  which  consists  in  giving  attention  to  a 
series  of  objects  in  succession,  at  the  beginning  guid- 
ing the  attention  by  pointing,  handling,  objects,  etc. 
and  designating  each  object  in  the  series  by  a  number 
name.  Another  is  the  division  of  an  object  —  a  length, 
surface,  or  solid  —  into  equal  parts,  and  designating 
the  sum  of  the  parts  by  a  number  name.  The  third 
form  of  experience,  which  will  constitute  the  basis  of 
this  experiment,  consists  in  the  simultaneous  apprehen- 
sion of  a  group  of  objects,  and  the  designation  of  the 
group  by  a  number  name.  What  we  may  call  the 
perception  of  number  exists  in  each  of  these  cases  prior 
to  the  use  of  number  names,  and  forms  the  basis  of  the 
idea  which  is  represented  by  the  verbal  expression. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     133 

Our  problem  in  this  experiment  is  to  study  the  eflfect 
of  grouping  upon  number  apprehension. 

Material  and  method.  The  most  convenient  method 
of  studying  the  simultaneous  apprehension  of  a  group 
of  objects  is  to  present  the  group  to  view  for  a  short 
space  of  time  by  the  brief  exposure  or  tachistocopie 
method.  We  shall  use  groups  of  dots  placed  upon  white 
cards  and  presented  by  means  of  the  fall  exposure 
apparatus.  In  order  to  test  the  effect  of  grouping,  one 
series  of  cards  contains  dots  arranged  in  a  straight  hori- 
zontal row,  with  equal  spaces  between  them;  another 
series  contains  dots  arranged  in  irregular  grouping;  and 
the  other  series  contains  dots  in  certain  regular  forms 
of  grouping.  The  stimuli  used  are  reproduced  in  the 
Appendix,  which  see. 

The  cards  of  each  series  should  be  presented  in  irreg- 
ular order,  so  that  the  subject  may  not  be  able  to  anti- 
cipate what  the  number  about  to  be  presented  may  be. 
As  each  card  is  reached  in  the  series  it  should  be  pre- 
sented once  (after  warning  signal),  and  the  subject 
should  make  a  record  of  his  judgment  of  the  number  of 
spots,  of  their  arrangement,  and  any  introspections  he 
may  make.  Each  judgment  may  afterward  be  identi- 
fied and  its  correctness  determined  by  labeling  it  with 
the  number  of  the  series  and  its  number  in  the  sequence 
of  presentations  in  the  series.  After  all  the  series  have 
been  presented  once,  they  may  be  presented  a  second 
time,  and  each  subject's  score  may  be  based  upon  the 
second  trial.  Experimenter  and  subject  may  exchange 


1S4 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


places  each  time  after  the  completion  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  whole  series  of  cards. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  numerical  results  of  this 
experiment  may  be  simply  expressed.  Each  individual 
should  report  his  judgments  in  the  two  trials  upon 
each  number  of  each  series.  For  this  purpose  the  num- 
bers should  be  arranged  in  consecutive  order.  He 
should  then  determine  and  record  the  highest  number 
of  each  series  which  was  correctly  judged  in  the  second 
trial.  Furthermore,  he  should  classify  the  errors  in 
each  series  and  in  the  whole  number  of  judgments  into 
underestimations  and  overestimations,  and  calculate 
the  proportion  of  each. 

The  general  report  should  contain  a  table  and  chart 
based  upon  the  percentage  of  correct  judgments  (based 
upon  the  second  judgment  in  each  case)  which  were 
passed  by  the  class  as  a  whole  upon  each  stimulus  card. 
The  chart  and  table  should  exhibit  a  comparison  of  the 
percentage  correctness  of  the  judgments  of  the  same 
numbers  in  the  different  series. 


TABLE  XIII.  PERCENTAGE  OF  CORRECT  JUDGMENTS 
FROM  A  GROUP  OF  TWENTY  INDIVIDUALS  UPON 
EACH  NUMBER  OF  THE  VARIOUS  SERIES 


Number 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

Series 

I.... 

80 

45 

40 

40 

35 

25 

II.... 

100 

85 

75 

70 

60 

45 

45 

III... 

85 

80 

80 

75 

60 

65 

55 

55 

IV.... 

90 

85 

85 

70 

45 

60b 

SO 

25 

40 

;   v.... 

95 

75 

70 

100 

70 

60 

90 

55 

30 

45 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     135 

Results  of  the  Experiment.  Table  XIII  and  Chart 
V  give  the  data  for  the  comparison  of  the  apprehension 
of  the  various  sorts  of  arrangement  of  the  dots.  The 
facts  may  be  most  readily  inspected  in  the  chart.  It  is 


Percentage 
100 


Iftunber  exposed 
3       4       5      6       7      8       9     10     11     12     13     14     15 


80 


40 


20 


3                    :3 

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^^^        ^           -t    t              ^ 

S^^U-v4                J      I                    S 

:  ^  S^  '      '    •• 

X^^  ^C"^^      ^     7  ^- 

^    ^^   ^^^5        I      I    X 

^      A       '  V           ^          'A 

f        \^      ^      ^^-;      ^ 

X        \il      V^   v2        t 

\              \\         X        N              \ 

"^^          ^   ^4:          !!E3 

t            X.^    's- 

X           ^  ^               X     ^ 

■^^        H        Q^  %2 

^^     t     ^i     V 

^          ^'v--^'    it 

^I       '^ 

1                                                1 

Ghaut  V. 


GRAPHIC    REPRESENTATION    OF    THE    PERCENTAGE    OF 
CORRECT   JUDGMENTS  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XIII 


I.  Irregidar  arrangement  n.  Horizontal  row 

m.  Grouping  by  fours  IV.  Grouping  by  threes 

V.  Grouping  by  flvea 


apparent  at  a  glance  that  there  is  a  radical  difference 
in  the  mode  of  apprehension  of  the  dots  in  irregular 
grouping,  and  in  grouping  by  fives,  for  instance.  Se- 
ries I  and  Series  V.  By  comparison  of  the  individual 
series  and  by  a  study  of  the  introspections  the  effect 
of  the  various  forms  of  grouping  may  be  made  out. 


136 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


The  significance  of  the  results  should  be  studied  with 
reference  to  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  span  of 
attention  and  the  mode  of  organization  which  is  pro- 
duced by  grouping.  The  apprehension  of  objects  in 
groups  is  particularly  significant  as  an  indication  of 
the  nature  of  much  of  our  recognition  of  number. 
Question  4  suggests  one  application  of  the  facts.  What 
are  others.? 

TABLE  XIV.  PERCENTAGE  OF  ERRORS  CONSISTING 
IN  OVERESTIMATIONS  IN  THE  VARIOUS  NUM- 
BERS OF  THE  DIFFERENT  SERIES 

(The  numbers  in  italics  represent  the  total  number  of  errors) 


Number 

s 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

Series 

I... 

100 

11 
64 

12 

4ii 

12 

25 

13 
46 

15 
13 

II... 

0 

3 

5 

6 

8 

11 

11 

.  , 

0 

100 

40 

50 

50 

9 

9 

III... 

S 

U 

4 

5 

8 

7 

9 

9 

100 

75 

75 

20 

50 

45 

9 

22 

IV... 

2 

3 

3 

6 

11 

8 

12 

100 

100 

66 

83 

73 

38 

14 

i4 

8 

V... 

1 

5 

6 

0 

6 

8 

2 

9 

u 

11 

100 

100 

17 

0 

33 

75 

50 

9 

14 

18 

Table  XIV  presents  the  facts  regarding  the  relation 
of  overestimation  and  underestimation  in  the  appre- 
hension of  the  various  sized  numbers  of  the  different 
series.  The  table  shows  that  in  all  the  series  the  errors 
in  the  smaller  numbers  consist  chiefly  in  overestima- 
tions,  while  in  the  case  of  the  larger  numbers  the  errors 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS    137 

are  underestimations.  What  is  the  cause  of  this 
marked  difference?  Is  it  an  evidence  that  an  error  in 
the  apprehension  of  a  smaller  number  of  objects  is  of  a 
different  sort  from  an  error  in  the  apprehension  of  a 
larger  number,  or  is  it  due  to  the  same  cause  which  in 
some  way  produces  a  different  result  under  the  two 
conditions?  Introspections  should  be  made  use  of  in 
discussing  this  question.  All  the  hypotheses  possible 
should  be  presented,  and  their  probability  discussed. 

TABLE  XV.    INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  PER- 
CENTAGE OF  CORRECT  JUDGMENTS 


Individual 

Percentage  of  cor- 
rect judgments 

Individual 

Percentage  of  cor- 
rect judgments 

A 

10.0 

K 

67.5 

B 

45.0+ 

L 

70.0+ 

C 

45.0 

M 

70.0 

D 

47.5 

N 

72.5 

E 

55.0 

0 

72.5 

F 

67.5 

P 

75.0 

G 

62.5+ 

Q 

75.0= 

H 

62.5 

R 

77.8+ 

I 

65.0  = 

S 

80.0 

J 

67.5    ' 

T 

82.5 

Table  XV  shows  individual  scores  in  the  percentage 
of  correct  judgments  made.  The  significance  of  such 
marked  individual  differences  as  are  represented  in  this 
and  other  tables  in  these  is  one  of  the  important  prob- 
lems of  educational  psychology.  In  such  an  experi- 
ment as  this  it  is  likely  to  occur  to  the  student  that 
purely  sensory  differences  are  likely  to  be  responsible 


138  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

for  the  wide  divergence  in  the  results,  but  there  seems 
no  good  ground  for  this  conclusion.  This  hypothesis 
may  be  tested  by  comparing  the  records  of  those  who 
wear  glasses  with  those  of  those  who  do  not.  There  is 
some  indication  of  a  difference  in  the  mode  of  appre- 
hension in  the  difference  in  the  percentages  of  over- 
and  underestimations.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
total  number  of  underestimations  exceeds  the  over- 
estimations,  but  in  the  case  of  four  individuals,  indi- 
cated in  the  table  by  the  plus  sign,  the  reverse  is  the 
case;  and  in  the  case  of  two,  indicated  by  the  equality 
sign,  the  over-  and  underestimations  are  equal  in 
number.  These  divergent  cases,  however,  are  regularly 
distributed  among  those  of  high  and  low  percentages  of 
correct  judgments. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  be  able  to  determine  the  sig- 
nificance of  such  facts  of  individual  difference  as  this, 
both  for  schoolroom  practice  and  for  the  diagnosis  of 
abilities  in  vocational  guidance.  For  a  discussion  of 
some  of  the  attempts  which  have  been  made  in  the 
latter  sphere  see  Munsterberg.^  Individual  differences 
in  the  fundamental  forms  of  number  ability  have  been 
studied  particularly  by  S.  A.  Courtis.  See  his  article  in 
the  report  of  the  New  York  School  Inquiry.* 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  A  valuable  extension 

*  MUnsterberg,  H.,  Psychology  and  Industrial  Efficiency.  Boston: 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.   1913. 

*  Courtis,  S.  A.,  "Report  on  the  Courtis  Tests  in  Arithmetic"; 
in  Report  of  Committee  on  School  Inquiry,  City  of  New  York  (1911- 
13),  vol.  1,  pp.  389-^46. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS     139 

of  this  experiment  consists  in  making  the  experiment 
with  children  of  various  ages,  and  noting  the  type  of 
recognition  in  which  the  older  children  and  adults 
show  most  development.  An  attempt  may  also  be 
made  to  determine  whether  individual  differences 
among  children  reflect  their  ability  in  number  work, 
or  in  any  other  phase  of  their  school  work. 

QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

The  student  may  judge  which  questions  can  be  answered  only  in 
the  general  report. 

1.  What  is  the  average  scope  of  attention  as  measured  by  the 
number  of  different  unorganized  units  which  can  be  appre- 
hended simultaneously?  Within  what  limits  does  it  vary? 

2.  How  does  grouping  (subjective  or  objective)  enable  one  to 
judge  correctly  a  nimiber  of  objects  beyond  the  scope  of 
attention? 

8.  Which  do  you  think  is  more  affected  by  education,  the  scope  of 
attention  or  the  ability  to  apprehend  groups?  (If  opportunity 
offers,  this  question  could  well  be  tested.) 

4.  Does  the  experience  obtained  in  this  experiment  suggest  any 
means  by  which  we  may  form  the  idea  of  numbers  larger  than 
can  readily  be  grasped  concretely?  Does  the  decimal  system 
suggest  any  analogy? 

5.  What  possibilities  exist  in  the  procedure  used  in  this  experi- 
ment for  the  teaching  of  number? 

6.  Point  out  other  kinds  of  experience  in  which  the  organization 
of  the  material  increases  the  amount  which  can  be  appre- 
hended as  a  unit. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman,  F.  N.  "Grouped  Objects  as  a  Concrete  Basis  for  the 
Number  Idea";  in  Elementary  School  Teacher  (1912),  vol.  12,  pp. 
306-14. 

Judd,  C.  H.   Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers,  chap.  ix. 

McClellan,  J.  A.,  and  Dewey,  J.  Psychology  of  Number. 


CHAPTER  IV 

TESTS 

There  are  two  senses  which  are  important  for  the 
child's  education  and  mental  development,  and  in 
respect  to  which  there  are  a  considerable  number  of 
children  in  whom  there  is  marked  deviation  from  the 
normal;  namely,  vision  and  hearing.  The  purpose  of 
these  tests  is  the  detection  of  serious  deviations  from 
the  normal,  and  the  rough  determination  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  defect.  The  aim  is  not  to  determine  with 
precision  the  amount  of  the  defect  nor  to  equip  the 
student  to  prescribe  remedies  other  than  those  which 
axe  included  in  the  duty  of  the  school  administrator. 


TESTS  141 


Experiment  No.  13 
tests  of  visual  defects 

Problem.  The  defects  which  are  to  be  tested  in  this 
experiment  are  myopia  (near-sightedness),  hyperopia 
(far-sightedness),  astigmatism  (lack  of  clear  focusing 
of  the  image  on  the  retina),  and  heterophoria  (lack  of 
muscular  balance,  which  produces  a  tendency  of  the 
eyes  to  cross,  squint,  etc). 

a.  The  first  test  is  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  the 
presence  of  myopia  or  hyperopia. 

Myopia.  This  is  usually  caused  by  too  great  length 
of  eyeball  from  front  to  back,  as  a  result  of  which  the 
image  of  an  object  at  a  distance  is  brought  to  a  focus 
in  front  of  the  retina.  Hyperopia  is  caused  by  the  op- 
posite fault,  as  a  result  of  which  the  image  would  come 
to  a  focus  back  of  the  retina  if  the  crystalline  lens  of 
the  eye  were  at  rest.  Myopia  cannot  be  corrected  by 
the  action  of  the  crystalline  lens,  because  this  would 
necessitate  that  the  lens  become  flatter  than  it  is  when 
at  rest.  The  lens  flattens,  however,  only  through  the 
contraction  of  a  muscle  which  is  constant  in  its  ten- 
sion, and  which  cannot  be  relaxed  or  tightened  to  suit 
the  varying  needs  of  accommodation;  and  hence  there 
is  no  means  of  further  decreasing  its  curvature.  For 
this  reason  the  defect  is  easily  discovered  by  the  inabil- 
ity of  the  subject  to  clearly  distinguish  objects  as  far 
away  as  can  be  seen  by  the  normal  eye,  and  by  his 


142  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

ability  to  see  objects  at  a  greater  distance  by  the  use  of 
a  lens  which  brings  the  light  to  a  focus  farther  back; 
that  is,  a  concave  lens. 

Hyperopia.  This,  on  the  other  hand,  is  detected 
(provided  the  ciliary  muscle  which  controls  the  crys- 
talline lens  has  not  been  paralyzed  by  a  drug)  in  a 
somewhat  more  roundabout  way.  After  the  analogy 
of  myopia,  we  might  assume  that  the  far-sighted  indi- 
vidual could  not  distinguish  objects  close  by,  but  this 
assumption  would  be  incorrect,  for  the  thickening  of 
the  lens  which  is  necessary  to  bring  it  to  a  focus  upon 
objects  near  at  hand  is  produced  by  the  contraction  of 
the  muscle  of  accommodation  —  the  ciliary  muscle  — 
and  in  the  hyperopic  eye  it  is  only  necessary  that  this 
contraction  be  more  vigorous  than  in  the  normal  eye. 
A  further  consequence  of  the  defect  is  that  even  when 
the  lens  is  accommodated  for  distant  objects  the  ciliary 
muscle  is  not  at  rest,  as  in  the  normal  eye,  but  must  be 
more  or  less  strongly  contracted.  It  is  this  fact  which 
is  employed  to  detect  hyperopia.  If  the  normal  eye  is 
accommodated  for  a  distant  object  and  a  convex  lens 
is  placed  before  the  eye,  producing  in  effect  an  accom- 
modation for  a  point  nearer  by,  the  lens  cannot  adjust 
itself  by  further  flattening,  since  it  is  already  at  rest; 
and  the  object  as  a  consequence  appears  blurred.  In 
the  hyperopic  eye,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lens  is  still 
somewhat  thickened  by  the  ciliary  muscle,  and  this  by 
further  relaxing  can  compensate  for  the  effect  of  the 
artificial  lens,  with  the  result  that  the  object  remains 


TESTS  14S 

clear.  In  a  word,  then,  if  the  addition  of  a  convex  lens 
does  not  blur  the  vision  of  an  object  set  at  the  maxi- 
mum distance,  the  eye  is  hyperopic. 

Material  and  method.  The  test  consists  merely  in 
applying  these  general  principles.  In  doing  so,  it  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  examine  one  eye  at  a  time,  and  to 
keep  the  other  eye  covered  without  pressing  upon  it. 
Placing  a  blank  disk  in  the  trial  frame,  is  a  convenient 
method  of  doing  this.  The  McCallie  vision  test  cards  * 
are  recommended,  because  their  order  can  be  changed 
at  will  and  only  one  letter  is  shown  at  a  time,  thus 
making  an  accurate  record  possible  of  what  is  and  what 
is  not  correctly  perceived. 

Detailed  directions.  Require  the  subject  to  sit 
twenty  feet  from  the  spot  where  the  cards  lie  face  down 
upon  a  table.  Cover  one  eye.  Present  the  first  card 
with  the  small  letter  at  the  top  and  ask  the  subject  to 
name  it.  Record  his  answer,  and  continue  with  the 
other  cards  until  ten  have  been  presented,  or  until  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  subject  cannot  read  four  out 
of  five  of  the  letters  at  that  distance.  If  he  has  read 
correctly  eight  out  of  ten  cards,  there  is  no  considerable 
myopia,  and  the  test  should  be  made  for  hyperopia  by 
placing  the  convex  lens  (+.75)  in  the  trial  frame.  If 
the  subject  can  still  read  the  smallest  letters,  there  is 
evidence  of  hyperopia.    If  they  appear  blurred,  the 

^  These  cards  may  be  purchased  from  Edwin  Fitzgeorge,  agent. 
Box  67,  Trenton,  N.  J.  A  set  for  literates  contains  letters.  Another 
set  may  be  used  with  illiterates. 


144  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

eye  is  approximately  emmetropic  —  that  is,  neither 
hyperopic  nor  myopic. 

If  the  subject  cannot  read  eight  out  of  ten  of  the 
smallest  letters,  the  next  larger  letters  should  be  pre- 
scribed; and  if  he  fails  to  read  these,  the  next  larger; 
and  so  on.  If  he  fails  to  read  the  largest  letters,  the 
distance  should  be  reduced  by  two  feet  at  a  time  until 
he  can  do  so.  The  trial  should  be  made  now  with  the 
concave  lens  (—.75)  to  determine  whether  vision  is 
improved  thereby.  If  so,  the  eye  is  myopic. 

The  results  may  be  conveniently  recorded  by  means 
of  the  following  formula:  The  acuity  of  vision  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  ratio  of  the  greatest  distance  from  which 
a  particular  size  of  letter  can  be  read  to  the  greatest 
distance  at  which  it  can  be  read  by  a  normal  eye.  Thus, 
if  the  letters  marked  forty  are  the  smallest  which  the 
subject  can  read  at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet,  his  acuity 
is  recorded  as  20/40.  It  should  further  be  recorded 
whether  the  eye  is  emmetropic,  hyperopic,  or  myopic. 

The  same  procedure  should  be  gone  through  with 
the  other  eye. 

b.  The  second  test  is  for  the  purpose  of  detecting 
the  presence  of  astigmatism. 

Astigmatism.  This  defect  is  caused  by  an  unequal 
curvature  of  one  of  the  refracting  media  of  the  eye  in 
its  various  meridians.  The  seat  of  the  trouble  is  usually 
the  cornea.  As  a  result  the  rays  of  light  from  any  given 
point  will  not  reach  a  focus  at  a  point,  but  those  which 
meet  the  cornea  in  one  meridian  will  be  focused  at  one 


TESTS  145 

point  and  those  which  meet  it  in  another  meridian  will 
be  focused  at  another  point.  The  retina  may  be  situ- 
ated at  the  focus  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  meridians, 
or  at  a  point  different  from  either,  and  there  are  in  con- 
sequence a  variety  of  possibilities  with  regard  to  the 
retinal  image.  The  common  result,  however,  is  that 
there  is  an  elongation  of  the  image  in  some  particular 
direction  due  to  the  fact  that  the  focal  distance  of  the 
cornea  in  this  direction  is  greater  or  less  than  that  of 
the  rest  of  the  cornea.  Any  line,  then,  which  is  in  any 
other  than  this  direction  of  unequal  curvature  will 
appear  blurred  because  of  the  elongation  of  the  image 
in  a  lateral  direction.  In  the  case  of  a  line  which  is  i 
parallel  to  the  direction  of  unequal  curvature,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  elongations  all  fall  within  the  line  itself 
and  hence  do  not  produce  blurring.  The  common 
method  of  detecting  astigmatism,  therefore,  is  to  pre- 
sent a  card  which  contains  lines  in  various  directions 
radiating  from  a  center.  If  the  lines  in  one  direction 
appear  distinct,  while  the  rest  are  blurred,  there  is  evi- 
dence of  astigmatism.  If  astigmatism  is  detected  by 
this  means,  the  defect  is  sufficient  to  require  correction. 
Oculists  usually  make  a  more  exact  diagnosis  by  means 
of  trial  cylindrical  lenses  and  the  opthalmoscope. 

The  test  should  be  made  as  follows :  Place  the  chart 
at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet  from  the  subject  and  test 
one  eye  at  a  time.  If  myopia  or  hyperopia  exist,  insert 
in  the  trial  frame  the  lens  which  partially  corrects  the 
defect.  Ask  the  subject  whether  the  line  in  one  direc- 


146  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

tion  appears  blacker  and  more  distinct  than  the  others. 
If  the  answer  is  affirmative,  the  correctness  of  the  judg- 
ment may  be  confirmed  by  turning  the  head  so  that  the 
one  eye  is  raised  and  the  other  lowered.  The  position 
of  the  distinct  Hnes  should  shift  correspondingly.  If  an 
affirmative  answer  is  thus  confirmed,  the  defect  may 
be  recorded  as  astigmatism  in  the  axis  of  the  lines 
which  appear  distinct. 

c.  The  third  test.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  detect- 
ing heterophoria,  or  the  lack  of  muscular  balance. 

Heterophoria.  This  is  caused  by  an  unequal  tension 
in  the  pairs  of  muscles  which  turn  the  eye  out  and  in  or 
up  and  down,  or  a  combination  of  these  two  conditions. 
This  inequality  of  tension  may  not  produce  an  actual 
displacement  of  the  line  of  vision  of  the  eye,  since  the 
motive  of  clear  vision  may  lead  to  an  extra  innervation 
of  the  muscle  opposing  the  muscle  which  possesses  un- 
due tension.  This,  however,  produces  a  condition  of 
strain  which  may  have  serious  effects  upon  the  nervous 
system.  The  test  for  heterophoria  is  based  upon  the 
fact  that  if  the  motive  for  directing  the  eyes  toward  the 
same  point  is  not  present,  the  defect  becomes  manifest. 
This  may  be  done  by  placing  a  lens  or  other  medium 
before  one  eye  so  that  the  image  in  that  eye  is  distorted 
and  is  not  recognized  as  being  produced  by  the  object 
which  is  perceived  through  the  other  eye.  The  Stevens 
stenopaic  lens"^  is  recommended  for  this  purpose,  since 

*  The  stenopaic  lens  should  be  tested  to  see  whether  it  is  accurate. 
If  it  is  not,  as  is  likely  to  happen,  the  Maddox  rods  may  be  used  and 


TESTS  147 

it  reveals  the  direction  and  amount  of  displacement  by 
a  single  determination.  This  is  a  convex  lens  of  short 
focus  covered  except  for  a  small  opening  in  the  center. 
When  this  lens  is  placed  with  the  opening  close  to  and 
in  front  of  the  pupil,  a  source  of  light,  as  a  candle,  is 
seen  as  a  circular  spot  of  diffused  light.  If  the  muscular 
balance  of  the  eyes  is  normal,  the  image  of  the  candle 
as  seen  through  the  other  eye  should  appear  in  the 
center  of  this  spot.  If  it  does  not,  there  is  heterophoria. 

Proceed  as  follows.  Place  the  stenopaic  lens  before 
one  eye.  Place  a  lighted  candle  on  a  level  with  the  eyes 
and  twenty  feet  away.  Direct  the  subject  to  close  his 
eyes  and  immediately  upon  opening  them  and  looking 
at  the  candle  to  say  whether  it  appears  in  the  middle 
of  the  circle  of  light;  or  if  not,  what  its  position  is. 
Repeat  the  test  with  the  other  eye. 

The  results  of  the  test  should  be  recorded  for  each 
eye  separately.  The  record  should  state  whether 
there  is  heterophoria;  and  if  there  is,  in  what  direction 
the  lack  of  muscular  balance  exists. 
'.  Results  of  the  experiment.  The  record  of  the  test  of 
a  group  of  twenty-two  individuals  for  visual  acuity  is 
shown  in  Table  XVI.  In  most  cases  the  record  is  con- 
sistent. For  convenience  in  inspecting  the  table  the 
cases  in  which  a  ratio  less  than  20/20  indicates  a  de- 
fect in  acuity  are  underlined.  In  two  cases  there  is  a 
defect  indicated  in  both  eyes,  and  in  five  cases  in  one 

the  test  made  with  the  instrument  in  both  the  vertical  and  the  hori- 
zontal positions.  i 


148 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XVI.  RECORD  OF  THE  TESTS  FOR  VISUAL 
ACUITY  OF  TWENTY-TWO  INDIVIDUALS 


Ratio 


20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 


20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/30 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/20 
20/50 
20/20 
20/20 


Letters 
recog- 
nized 


Large 
letters  re- 
cognized 


9* 


8« 


8» 


8» 


Letters  recognized  with 
lenies 


Convex 


5 


8Bt 
4B 

8B.L. 
6B 
OB 
10 


not  so  good 
3B 

lOB.R. 
7B 
8B 


Coneav$ 


10 


10 


neither  lens  helps. 


0 

OB 

.. 

9 

9B 

0 

6B 

10 

8 

9 
B 

•• 

8 

6B 

7 
10 

no  data 
10 

6 

6 

•• 

*  Second  size. 


t  Fourth  size. 


t  Blurred. 


TESTS  149 

eye  only.  Usually  when  eight  or  more  of  the  smallest 
letters  can  be  recognized  with  the  naked  eye  the  recog- 
nition is  impaired  by  the  use  of  either  lens.  In  the  case 
of  Subjects  D  (R.E.),  G,  and  U,  however,  the  use  of  the 
convex  lens  either  produces  improvement  or  fails  to 
impair  vision.  What  does  this  indicate?  In  the  case  of 
four  individuals  vision  was  improved  in  one  or  both 
eyes  by  the  concave  lens.   What  does  this  indicate? 

One  case,  that  of  M,  appears,  so  far  as  this  test  can 
be  relied  upon,  to  be  improved  by  neither  lens.  This 
may  point  to  astigmatism,  or  some  other  form  of  de- 
fect, such  as  cataract  or  retinal  defect.  From  reference 
to  the  next  table  no  astigmatism  is  apparent,  though 
expert  examination  would  be  necessary  to  render 
judgment  on  this  point  certain. 

The  record  of  the  test  in  astigmatism.  Table  XVII, 
indicates  a  rather  large  proportion,  50  per  cent  of  de- 
fective cases  in  this  rather  rough  method  of  determina- 
tion. The  results  of  this  method  must  be  taken  with 
considerable  allowance  for  error  in  observation. 

The  results  of  heterophoria  are  presented  not  merely 
to  illustrate  the  proportion  of  cases  in  which  hetero- 
phoria is  to  be  expected,  but  also  to  indicate  that  care 
is  needed  in  interpreting  the  objective  results.  Take 
Subject  D,  for  instance.  He  finds  heterophoria  in  one 
eye  and  not  in  the  other.  Is  this  possible  by  the  method 
used?  The  test  depends  on  the  comparative  positions  of 
the  two  eyes.  Or  take  Subjects  E,  G,  I,  K,  M,  O,  U,  and 
V.    They  find,  according  to  their  report,  esophoria  in 


150 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XVn.  RECORD  OF  THE  TESTS  FOR  ASTIG- 
MATISM AND  HETEROPHORIA  OF  TWENTY-TWO 
INDIVIDUALS 


+  induxdes 

"presence,  and 

—  absence  of  defect 

Astigmatism 

Heterophoria  in  horizontal  plane 

Subject 

R.E. 

L.E. 

R.E. 

L.E. 

ffi 

Es^ 

Ex' 

ffi 

E*« 

Ex* 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

no 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

data 

+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 

1  Heterophoria.  '  Esophoria,  or  displacement  inward. 

'  Ezopboria,  or  displacement  outward. 

one  eye  and  exophoria  in  the  other.  Is  it  possible  to 
get  this  result  by  this  method? 
In  order  to  answer  these  questions,  and  the  further 


TESTS  151 

question,  —  what  does  the  displacement  of  the  Kne  to 
the  right  or  left  mean  with  the  lens  before  each  eye 
with  reference  to  the  relative  position  of  the  eyes?  — 
the  student  should  draw  a  diagram  of  the  eyes,  the 
source  of  light  and  the  various  possible  positions  of  the 
image  of  the  light  and  of  the  line. 

Extensions  of  the  experiment.  Possible  extensions 
of  this  experiment  will  be  described  at  the  end  of  Ex- 
periment XIV. 

REFERENCES 

For  an  account  of  the  frequency  of  these  defects,  see  G.  M.  Whip- 
ple, Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  chap.  vi.  For  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  various  defects  and  their  physiological  basis,  see  H. 
Eulenberg  and  T.  Bach,  Schulgesundeheiislehre  (1900),  vol.  1,  pp. 
748/. 

For  questions  and  discussions,  see  the  end  of  the  next  experiment 


152  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  14 
tests  op  auditory  acuity 

The  most  serious  defect  of  hearing  is  the  inability 
to  hear  sounds  of  an  intensity  (loudness)  sufficient  to 
be  heard  by  the  individual  with  normal  hearing.  The 
manner  of  testing  auditory  acuity  is  simple  in  principle, 
but  the  conduct  of  the  test  is  attended  with  difficulties. 
It  is  not  a  simple  matter  to  produce  a  series  of  sounds 
in  regularly  ascending  or  descending  grades  of  intensity 
and  of  standard  intensity.  One  means  at  hand  is  to 
vary  the  distance  of  the  source  of  sound  from  the  ear; 
but  this  method  is  attended  with  the  complicating 
factor  of  reflecting  walls,  and  ordinarily  by  the  disturb- 
ing presence  of  other  sounds  in  the  neighborhood.  This 
is  the  method  of  the  watch  test  or  the  whisper  test.  To 
overcome  these  difficulties,  the  sound  may  be  applied 
to  the  ear  and  its  intensity  varied  in  regular  steps. 
This  is  the  method  of  the  audiometer. 

A  convenient  general  method  of  procedure,  whatever 
the  form  of  stimulus  which  is  used,  is  a  combination  of 
the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  with  the  method 
of  varying  the  stimulus.  This  method  consists  in  de- 
termining the  intensity  of  the  stimulus  at  which  the 
subject  will  give  a  correct  answer  in  eight  out  of  ten 
judgments.  The  detailed  procedure  with  the  watch 
test,  the  whisper  test,  and  the  audiometer  is  as 
follows:  — 


TESTS  158 

Directions 

a.  Watch  test.  Blindfold  the  subject,  close  one  ear 
with  the  finger  or  a  plug.  Hold  the  watch  opposite  the 
open  ear  well  within  hearing  distance  and  slowly  move 
it  away,  requiring  the  subject  to  say  at  intervals 
whether  or  not  he  hears  it.  When  the  point  has  been 
reached  at  which  the  subject  reports  that  he  no  longer 
hears  the  watch,  mark  the  spot  on  the  floor  with  chalk. 
Begin  beyond  the  point  at  which  the  watch  can  be 
heard  and  move  it  slowly  toward  the  subject  until  he 
clearly  hears  it  and  mark  as  before.  Then  tell  the  sub- 
ject that  when  the  watch  is  presented  it  will  always 
be  at  the  same  place  but  that,  in  approximately  half 
the  cases  in  which  he  is  asked  to  judge,  there  will  be 
no  stimulus  whatever.  Then  hold  the  watch  midway 
between  the  two  marks  and  proceed  by  distributing 
the  cases  in  which  the  watch  is  and  is  not  presented 
irregularly,  but  in  about  equal  number.  If  the  answers 
are  correct  in  eight  out  of  ten  cases,  measure  the  dis- 
tance of  the  place  of  stimulation  from  the  ear  and  re- 
cord it  as  the  threshold.  If  the  answers  are  correct  in 
smaller  ratio  than  eight  to  ten,  move  the  watch  nearer 
and  elicit  another  set  of  judgments,  and  so  on  until  a 
place  is  found  where  the  ratio  is  as  required.  Proceed 
in  the  same  way  to  test  the  other  ear. 

b.  Whisper  test.  The  disadvantage  of  the  watch 
test  (besides  variation  in  the  loudness  of  tick  of  differ- 
ent watches,  and  the  consequent  absence  of  an  abso- 


154  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

lute  standard)  is  that  the  sound  is  not  one  which  one 
is  accustomed  to  listen  for,  and  is  one  which  it  is  very 
easy  to  imagine  one  hears  when  one  does  not.  Further- 
more, there  is  no  means  of  knowing  certainly  whether 
the  subject  actually  does  hear  the  sound;  and  finally, 
the  ability  to  hear  the  tick  of  a  watch  does  not  always 
correspond  entirely  with  the  ability  to  hear  other 
sounds,  and  is  not  one  which  is  of  great  practical  value. 
To  meet  these  difficulties  the  whisper  test  has  been 
devised. 

The  procedure  is  similar  in  principle  to  that  used  in 
the  watch  test,  the  difference  being  that  the  criterion 
as  to  whether  the  subject  has  heard  is  in  this  case  the 
ability  to  repeat  or  write  numbers  which  are  spoken  to 
him  in  a  whisper.  The  subject  is  placed  with  one  ear 
toward  the  experimenter,  the  other  ear  being  plugged, 
and  a  position  is  found  as  before  at  which  the  subject 
can  correctly  reproduce  numbers  which  are  whispered 
to  him,  in  eight  out  of  ten  cases.  In  order  to  insure 
that  the  numbers  be  pronounced  with  equal  loudness 
each  time,  the  breath  should  be  expelled  as  fully  as 
occurs  in  a  natural  expiration,  and  not  more  than  eight 
syllables  should  be  pronounced  at  one  time.  With 
these  precautions,  the  whisper  test  may  be  made  with 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  and  it  may  be  conveniently 
used  in  the  schoolroom. 

c.  Acoumeter  test.  The  disadvantage  of  both  the 
watch  and  the  whisper  tests  is  that  they  are  subject  to 
disturbance  by  other  sounds.    Hence,  a  comparison 


TESTS  155 

between  the  results  with  different  persons  is  rendered 
somewhat  uncertain  and  difficult.  These  difficulties 
are  overcome  by  forms  of  audiometer  which  produce 
sounds  of  regularly  varying  loudness  close  to  the  ear. 
The  instrument  which  is  chosen  for  this  test  is  the 
Lehmann  acoumeter.  This  instrument  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  pair  of  forceps,  the  height  of  which  can  be 
varied  by  small  and  measurable  amounts,  so  as  to 
enable  a  metal  ball  to  be  dropped  upon  a  surface  of 
glass  or  cardboard  from  various  heights. 

Directions.  Vary  the  height  of  the  forceps  in  the 
acoumeter  and  determine  the  threshold  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  watch  test.  Record  this  as  the 
measure  of  auditory  acuity.  Test  similarly  the  other 
ear. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  detailed  results  of 
the  three  auditory  tests  are  shown  in  numerical  form  in 
Table  XVIII,  and  in  graphic  form  in  Chart  VI.  The 
experience  of  previous  classes  indicates  that  when  this 
experiment  is  made  in  the  usual  fashion,  that  is,  when 
the  tests  are  all  made  by  different  individuals,  the  re- 
sults are  so  varied  that  little  or  no  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  them.  This  was  shown  by  the  unsatisfactori- 
ness  of  the  checks  which  are  mentioned  below.  It  is 
evident  from  this  experience  that  this  test,  while  appar- 
ently a  simple  one  to  make,  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
to  give  accurately.  In  order  to  insure  greater  uniform- 
ity in  the  results  all  the  subjects  were  tested  by  the 
watch  and  the  whisper  method  by  one  person,  and  the 


106 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XVIII.    SCORES  MADE  BY  A  GROUP  OP 
TWENTY  IN  THE  AUDITORY  TEST 


Acoumeter  test 

Watch  test 

Whisper  test 

Individual 

R.  ear 

{milli- 
meters) 

L.  ear 

{milli- 
meters) 

R.  ear 

{meters) 

L.  ear 

{meters) 

R.  ear 

{meters) 

L.  ear 

{meters) 

A 

5. 

5. 

0. 

0, 

.42 

.88 

B 

5. 

4. 

8.24 

1.42 

14.42 

14.42 

C 

5. 

8. 

.90 

.70 

4. 

8.6 

D 

8.5 

8.5 

1.08 

1.14 

12.6 

8. 

E 

8.5 

2.5 

0.27 

.30 

20.22 

20.22 

F 

8. 

8. 

9.30 

10.90 

12.90 

14.42 

G 

8. 

8. 

10.42 

10.42 

14.42 

14.42 

H 

2.5 

2.5 

8. 

4. 

9. 

10. 

I 

2.5 
2.5 

2. 

2.5 

2.25 

2.75 

1.95 
4.30 
8.18 

1.72 
8.46 
8. 

9.28 

11.91 

4.26 

9.23 

J 

11.91 

K 

3.80 

L 

2. 

2.5 

4.23 

4.23 

9.23 

9.23 

M 

2. 

2. 

5. 

4.22 

14.12 

14.12 

N 

2. 

1.5 

.98 

1.88 

9.23 

10.78 

0 

1.75 

2.5 

1.28 

.98 

11.5 

8.81 

P 

1.75 

2. 

4. 

2. 

7.21 

4.9 

Q 

1.75 

1.75 

4. 

4.22 

14.42 

14.42 

R 

1.5 

8.5 

8.11 

.66 

2.22 

8.6 

S 

1.5 
1.5 

2. 
1.75 

.68 
2.79 

.6 
8.8 

11.87 
15. 

.68 

T 

14.42 

acoumeter  test  was  given  to  all  by  another  experi- 
menter. Even  with  this  precaution  the  results  from 
five  of  the  subjects,  B,  E,  F,  G,  and  R,  were  unreliable 
on  account  of  some  limitation  or  defect  in  the  proce- 
dure. The  data  from  Subject  S  are  not  to  be  used  in 
judging  the  reliability  of  the  results  because  of  the  loss 
of  one  ear-drum. 
The  greatest  difficulty  encountered  in  giving  this 


TESTS 


167 


Distance 
H 


20  rj-r- 

-J" 

T- 

1 

_ 

. 

_ 

_ 

~i 

_ 

-       ^ 

9 

— 

Pi                     ~^ 

■ 

- 

J5  10 

_  — 

_ 

_  _ 

_ 

■ 

S          ij 

- 

^ 

— 

~ 

1 

— 

M 

1 

_  - 

- 

- 

10  — 

_ 

•g 

■s 

^ 

^  K  -  - 

. 

_ 

__ 

. 

_ 

— 

- 

— 

_         _ 

- 

- 

■  - 

0  --^ 

-'-_ 

_. 

__ 

t  _ 

._ _ 

K.M. 

-- 

-- 

M       * 

£   <> 

- 

- 

S 

— 

S      o 

•— 

g  ^ 

S     4 

«"!    * 

RLRL  RL.RLJlLRI.BLB.LRl,BL,BLHLKLKLRLBLRLELKLKli 

Indivld-A  3    C.  D  B   P*  G  H    I    J    K  E   M  N  -O    E^Q   R   S   T 

ual  »  •    •     •  •    • 

Obaxt  VI.    GRAPHIC  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  DATA  IN 

TABLE  XVIIl 

B  >B  right  ear  L  =  left  ear  *  indicates  unreliable  caaea 

test  is  the  interference  of  extraneous  noises.  This  is 
true  even  in  a  relatively  quiet  building.  In  a  building 
near  which  there  are  many  street  noises  the  difficulty 
would  be  greatly  increased.  Where  the  conditions  are 


158  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

unfavorable  for  this  reason  one  must  do  his  best  to  call 
for  judgments  at  moments  that  are  relatively  quiet. 
Another  difficulty  is  the  inability  of  the  unpracticed 
subject  to  pay  strict  attention,  and  to  give  a  faithful 
account  of  what  he  hears.  This  must  be  overcome  by 
taking  sufficient  time  for  the  test,  and  by  introducing  a 
considerable  number  of  negative  cases  by  calling  for 
judgments  when  no  stimulus  was  given.  If  the  subject 
does  not  pretty  regularly  report  that  he  hears  nothing 
when  no  stimulus  is  given  he  must  be  trained  until 
he  can. 

It  is  true  that  none  of  the  persons  tested  in  this 
group,  with  but  one  or  two  possible  exceptions,  are 
very  hard  of  hearing,  and  therefore  there  may  not  be 
any  of  them  who  need  to  be  discovered  by  an  auditory 
test.  And  yet  if  we  relied  on  a  single  test  there  would 
be  at  least  seven  or  eight  who  might  be  rated  defective 
by  one  test  or  another.  It  appears  then  that  much  care 
is  required  at  least  to  avoid  rating  persons  defective 
who  are  not,  and  possibly  also  to  avoid  missing  some 
who  are  defective. 

The  reliability  of  the  results  may  be  checked  in  two 
ways.  In  the  j&rst  place  we  may  compare  the  relative 
rating  given  to  the  two  ears  of  the  same  person  in  the 
diflFerent  tests.  If  one  ear  is  rated  poorer  than  the  other 
in  one  test  it  should  also  be  rated  as  poor  by  the  other 
tests.  The  chart  makes  it  easy  to  apply  this  check. 
Disregarding  the  unreliable  cases,  which  are  starred, 
we  may  examine  the  others  to  determine  whether  the 


TESTS  159 

results  from  the  two  ears  give  them  the  same  relative 
rating  in  the  three  tests  or  not.  There  are  ten  eases 
(A,  G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  L,  M,  Q,  T)  in  which  the  rating  of 
the  two  ears  is  not  markedly  different,  and  in  which 
the  three  tests  agree  in  giving  them  about  the  same 
rating.  There  are  three  cases  in  which  one  ear  is  given  a 
better  rating  than  the  other  in  all  three  tests  (N,  O,  P). 
There  are  then  thirteen  cases  in  which  there  is  sub- 
stantial agreement.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  two 
cases  (C  and  D),  in  which  one  ear  is  given  a  widely 
different  rating  than  the  other  in  one  test  but  not  in 
the  others.  On  the  whole,  this  check  is  favorable  to 
the  tests. 

The  other  check  does  not  give  quite  so  favorable 
results.  We  may  compare  the  relative  standing  of  the 
different  persons  in  the  three  tests.  Again  disregarding 
the  admittedly  unrehable  cases,  we  may  examine  each 
case  to  see  whether  there  is  any  considerable  discrep- 
ancy in  the  first  rating.  In  the  case  of  Subjects  A,  H,  I, 
M,  Q,  and  T,  there  is  reasonably  close  correspondence 
in  the  three  tests.  C  and  D  may  be  added  to  this  list,  if 
we  take  the  average  of  the  rating  of  the  two  ears  in  the 
cases  in  which  they  are  not  alike.  In  the  case  of  L  the 
whisper  test  is  rather  low,  but  not  extremely  so.  In  the 
case  of  four  subjects  (K,  N,  O,  and  P)  there  is  serious 
discrepancy  in  one  test  —  in  the  case  of  K  and  P  in  the 
whisper  test,  and  in  the  case  of  N  and  O  in  the  watch 
test.  There  are  thus  eight  cases  of  fair  agreement,  and 
four  cases  of  bad  disagreement  in  respect  to  one  test. 


160  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

The  tests,  while  not  highly  reliable  therefore,  give  re- 
sults which,  taken  singly,  are  of  some  value.  To  get 
results  of  greater  reliability  it  is  necessary  to  refine  the 
technique  far  beyond  that  which  an  untrained  teacher 
is  likely  to  attain  in  giving  the  tests  to  children,  or  to 
combine  the  results  from  two  or  three  tests. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  The  types  of  extension 
of  Tests  13  and  14  that  would  be  the  most  useful  con- 
cern the  technique,  or  the  effect  of  sensory  defects  upon 
the  child's  work  in  the  school.  The  technique  may  be 
further  investigated  by  having  the  same  test  given  to 
the  same  group  of  persons  by  two  or  more  experimenters. 
Cases  of  disagreement  might  then  be  further  investi- 
gated until  they  were  explained  or  the  different  testers 
came  to  an  agreement.  The  effect  of  sensory  defects  on 
school  work  could  be  studied  by  testing  a  group  of 
school  children  for  sight  and  hearing,  noting  whether 
there  were  any  bad  uncorrected  cases,  and  if  any  were 
discovered  investigating  their  work  to  see  whether  the 
effects  of  the  defect  could  be  traced.  If  the  defects 
could  be  corrected  and  the  results  noted,  so  much  the 
better. 


TESTS  161 


QUESTIONS  ON  EXPERIMENTS  NOS.   18  AND   14 

1.  Is  the  dependence  of  intelligence  upon  sensory  normality  nec- 
essary or  adventitious?  Support  your  answer.  Does  sensory 
defect  have  the  same  effect  on  intelligence  as  defect  of  brain 
structure? 

i.  Trace  the  possible  injurious  physiological  effects  of  sensory 
defect. 

8.  Show  in  some  detail  the  effects  of  sensory  defect  upon  the 
child's  acquirement  of  experience. 

4.  Describe  the  measures  which  may  be  taken  to  correct  or 
ameliorate  sensory  defects  or  to  avoid  some  of  their  bad  con- 
sequences. 

5.  Is  there  any  reason  to  think  that  especial  care  is  required  to 
detect  sensory  defect? 

6.  Does  the  importance  of  sensory  defect  argue  for  the  value  of 
sense  training? 

7.  Name  other  sensory  defects  of  some  consequence  besides 
those  tested  in  these  experiments. 

8.  Compare  sensory  defects  with  defects  in  any  of  the  perceptiial 
processes  investigated  in  this  course. 

REFERENCES 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Teats,  chap.  vi. 
Eulenberg,  H.,  and  Bach,  T.  Schidgesundheitslehre  (1900),  vol.  1, 
pp.748/. 


162  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  15 

TESTS   OF  MATURITY   OF  A  MENTAL  FUNCTION 
a.  Immediate  memory  for  numbers 

Problem.  The  second  type  of  test  with  which  we 
shall  deal  aims  to  determine  the  position  which  an  indi- 
vidual occupies  upon  a  scale  of  development.  The 
assumption  underlying  such  a  test  is  that  there  are 
characteristic  stages  of  development  through  which 
the  child  passes  until  he  reaches  maturity,  and  that 
tests  may  be  devised  which  correspond  in  difficulty  or 
in  kind  to  the  ability  or  the  type  of  mental  life  of  the 
child  at  these  various  stages. 

The  two  tests  which  are  used  in  this  experiment  will 
serve  as  examples  of  tests  of  progressive  difficulty 
which  may  be  used  to  measure  the  degree  of  mental 
maturity  of  an  individual.  The  next  step  in  the  devel- 
opment of  maturity  tests  on  a  systematic  basis  is  to 
devise  and  apply  many  such  single  tests  to  children,  in 
order  that  norms  may  be  established.  By  this  means  a 
group  of  standardized  tests  may  be  placed  at  the  serv- 
ice of  the  teacher  or  custodian  of  children,  by  which  he 
may  analyze  the  child's  mental  development  qualita- 
tively and  quantitatively. 

The  first  test  deals  with  the  relatively  simple  mental 
process  of  immediate  rote  memory,  or  memory  span. 
Immediate  memory  develops  rapidly  with  increasing 
age  up  to  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  may  be  devel- 


TESTS  1«8 

oped  further  by  practice.  This,  then,  is  a  suitable  sub- 
ject of  a  maturity  test. 

Material  and  method.  Various  kinds  of  subject- 
matter  have  been  used  in  tests  of  immediate  memory. 
The  most  convenient  material  in  a  number  of  ways 
consists  of  one-place  numbers,  and  they  have  accord- 
ingly been  chosen.  Numbers  have  the  advantages  of 
being  familiar,  and  at  the  same  time  of  being  relatively 
free  from  associations.  This  insures  the  use  of  rote 
instead  of  logical  memory. 

Two  series  of  numbers  are  given  below,  so  that  each 
subject  may  be  given  a  list  with  which  he  is  unfamiliar. 
In  making  up  the  Usts,  any  sequence  which  would  be 
likely  to  aid  the  memory  of  the  subject  should  be 
avoided.  Such  would  be,  for  example,  regularly  as- 
cending or  descending  sequences,  the  immediate  repe- 
tition of  the  same  number,  the  repetition  of  the  same 
sequences  in  successive  lists,  etc. 

List  a:    (2)  3,  8  (6)  4,  2,  7,  5, 1,  8 

(3)  9,  4,  7  (7)  3,  9,  2,  6,  7,  5,  8 

(4)  2,  5,  1,  9  (8)  9,  5,  4,  8,  1,  7,  3,  6 

(5)  6,  8,  3,  5,  7  (9)  2,  7,  1,  6,  9,  4,  3,  8,  5 

List  b:     (2)  6,  1  (6)  7,  3,  6,  8,  4,  9 

(3)  4,  7,  2  (7)  2,  5,  4,  3,  8,  1,  7 

(4)  3,  8,  5,  7  (8)  5,  1,  7,  3,  4,  6,  2,  9 

(5)  4,  2,  9,  1,  5  (9)  7,  1,  3,  6,  2,  9,  8,  5,  4 

The  series  are  to  be  read  aloud  by  the  experimenter 
in  order,  giving  the  subject  opportunity  to  reproduce 
each  series  orally.  The  numbers  should  be  read  in  an 
even  voice,  without  rhythmic  grouping  at  about  one 
second  intervals. 


164  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

6.  Reconstruction  of  sentences 

Problem.  A  second  test  of  the  same  general  nature 
as  the  preceding,  but  which  involves  a  more  complex 
sort  of  mental  process,  is  the  subject  of  this  experi- 
ment. This  test  consists  in  rearranging  the  words  of 
sentences  which  have  been  put  into  chance  order. 
Variation  in  difficulty  has  been  secured  by  choosing 
sentences  of  the  same  general  character,  but  of  in- 
creasing length.  The  sentences  used  in  this  experiment 
have  been  roughly  standardized  in  difficulty  by  being 
given  to  a  class  of  adults. 

Material  and  method.  The  subject  should  not  try 
to  reconstruct  the  sentences  until  the  experiment  is 
undertaken.  The  measure  of  efficiency  is  the  time 
required  to  reconstruct  the  sentences.  Let  the  experi- 
menter, with  stop-watch  in  hand,  present  one  sentence 
at  a  time  to  the  subject  visually,  beginning  with  the 
shortest  and  advancing  each  time  to  the  next  longer. 
The  time  to  be  measured  is  from  the  presentation  of 
the  sentence  until  it  has  been  correctly  written.  The 
answer  is  to  be  graded  as  correct  if  all  the  words  are 
included  in  a  grammatical  and  logical  sentence.  Minor 
variations  from  the  key  are  to  be  allowed.  Two  series 
of  sentences  are  furnished,  so  that  each  subject  may 
have  a  different  one.  The  two  series  are  approximately 
equal  in  difficulty.  They  are  printed  in  the  Appendix, 
which  see. 

Treatment  of  results.  The  individual  reports  should 


TESTS  165 

contain  tables  showing  the  series  of  numbers  correctly 
reproduced  and  the  time  required  to  rearrange  each 
sentence.  Any  variations  from  a  correspondence  be- 
tween the  relative  length  of  a  sentence  and  the  time 
required  to  construct  it  should  be  explained  on  the 
basis  of  introspection. 

The  general  report  should  generalize  the  data  from 
the  individual  subjects,  and  discuss  individual  differ- 
ences. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  These  tests  when  given 
to  adults  are,  of  course,  not  tests  of  maturity.  The 
purpose  of  including  them  in  a  course  of  this  sort,  be- 
sides familiarizing  the  student  with  certain  typical 
tests  and  methods,  is  to  indicate  some  of  the  facts 
which  have  to  be  considered  in  interpreting  the  results 
of  such  tests.  The  two  factors  which  are  to  be  studied 
in  the  results  to  be  presented  are  individual  difference, 
and  the  chance  misadaptation  or  favorable  adaptation 
of  a  subject  to  an  individual  test. 

The  immediate  memory  span  for  numbers  in  a  group 
of  fifteen  individuals  varied  from  6  to  9.  The  scores 
were  distributed  as  follows:  — 

Frequency  Number 

2 6 

3 7 

7 8 

3 '. 9 

The  mode  of  this  group  is  8.  Because  of  the  varia- 
tion which  is  here  evident  among  mature  individuals. 


166  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

it  is  manifestly  a  mistake  to  lay  great  stress  upon  the 
difiFerences  of  one  or  two  from  a  norm  in  a  single  test 
such  as  this.  The  combined  result  of  a  group  of  tests  is 
of  more  significance  than  a  single  test. 

Individual  differences  are  also  illustrated  in  the  re- 
sults of  the  tests  in  the  reconstruction  of  sentences. 
These  results  also  show  that  in  this  test  the  time  re- 
quired to  reconstruct  the  sentences  depends  a  good 
deal  on  the  chance  that  one  begins  with  the  right  or  the 
wrong  words,  or  starts  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
in  one  way  or  another.  Table  XIX  shows  the  scores  of 
two  groups,  in  Series  I  and  II  respectively. 

It  will  be  seen  upon  inspection  of  the  table  that  there 
is  fairly  regular  increase  in  the  time  required  to  recon- 
struct the  sentences  as  they  grow  progressively  longer, 
but  that  there  are  in  most  cases  exceptions  to  this  rule 
of  regular  increase,  and  in  some  cases  the  exception  is 
notable.  An  illustration  of  a  notable  exception  is  to 
be  found  in  the  score  of  Subject  F.  Such  cases  as  this 
show  that  it  would  be  erroneous  to  assume  —  in  adults 
at  least  —  that  a  sudden  and  large  increase  in  the  time 
required  indicates  a  limit  of  ability,  or  the  demarcation 
between  two  stages  or  methods  of  procedure,  for  in  the 
last  two  sentences  this  subject's  score  drops  consider- 
ably below  the  average.  It  may  be  that  in  the  case 
of  children  or  of  adults,  with  still  longer  and  more  com- 
plex sentences,  a  fairly  definite  point  would  be  reached 
which  would  mark  the  limit  of  ability  to  reconstruct 
without  the  expenditure  of  largely  increased  time;  but. 


TESTS 


lOT 


TABLE  XIX.     SCORES  OF  FIFTEEN  INDIVIDUALS  IN 
THE  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES 

Series  I 


Sentence  No. 
Number  of  words 

1 

6 

2 
7 

S 

8 

1 
9 

5 

10 

6 

12 

7 
13 

8 
16 

Subject  — 
A 

7 
20 
80 

9 
11 
13 
16 

10 
32 
32 
14 
18 
20 
25 
25 

15 
19 
40 
17 
23 
30 
23 
22 

17 
57 
32 

27 
34 
27 
45 
50 

21 
32 
75 
19 
45 
160 
51 
38 

28 
56 
60 
68 
117 
235 
79 
41 

32 

75 
40 
47 
194 
47 
90 
73 

36 

B 

68 

C 

50 

D 

52 

E 

150 

F 

77 

G 

225 

H 

74 

Average  of  middle 
two  individuals 

14.5 

22.5 

22.5 

33 

41.5 

64 

60 

72.5 

Tentative 

standard 

14 

22 

29 

33 

47 

56 

66 

Series  II 


Sentence  No. 
Number  of  words 

1 
6 

2 
7 

3 
8 

9 

35 
16 
85 
32 
27 
16 
41 

5 
10 

6 
12 

7 

u 

8 
16 

Subject  — 

I 

16 
12 
20 
15 
14 
10 
21 

17 
12 
17 
14 
15 
11 
19 

30 
12 
20 
17 
16 
13 
36 

is 

22 
24 
SO 
32 
16 
43 

40 
31 
43 
35 
37 
24 
92 

70 
25 
60 
35 
38 
181 
130 

60 

J 

49 

K 

45 

L 

44 

M 

58 

N 

36 

O 

67 

Score  of  middle 
individual 

15 

15 

17 

32 
30 

35 

37 

60 

49 

Tentative 

standard 

16 

15 

20 

38.5 

51.2 

54.25 

64.8 

188  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

with  the  possible  exception  of  Subject  E,  no  such  point 
was  reached  in  this  group,  and  the  probability  is 
against  such  an  interpretation  of  E's  scores. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  There  are  several 
obvious  modes  of  extending  this  experiment.  By  fur- 
ther experiments  with  adults  the  standardization  of 
these  sentences  can  be  perfected.  This  might  involve 
modifying  some  of  the  sentences,  or  substituting  others 
for  them.  Still  longer  and  more  complex  sentences 
could  be  used  with  adults  in  the  attempt  to  reach  a 
breaking  point.  Finally,  as  in  other  tests,  there  is  wide 
opportunity  of  the  standardization  of  this  test  with 
children. 


TESTS  100 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Are  any  devices  used  to  keep  the  series  of  numbers  in  mind? 

2.  Discuss  the  suitability  of  this  method  as  a  test  of  mental  matu- 
rity. What  function  is  involved? 

8.  What  methods  are  used  to  solve  the  problem  of  reconstruct- 
ing the  sentences?  Are  different  methods  used?  Are  different 
methods  used  with  sentences  of  different  length  or  degree  of 
diflBculty? 

4.  Does  your  knowledge  of  child  psychology  lead  you  to  think 
that  children  of  different  ages  might  use  different  methods? 

5.  What  type  of  mental  activity  is  tested  in  this  experiment? 

6.  Is  the  effect  of  increasing  mental  maturity  to  introduce  dif- 
ferent mental  processes  into  the  performance  of  such  tasks  as 
these?    If  not  what  change  does  take  place? 

7.  Examine  the  reports  of  tests  to  discover  in  what  kinds  of 
mental  process  the  greatest  change  with  mental  matiuity  ai>- 
pears. 

8.  Which  kind  of  test,  one  which  shows  large,  or  one  which  shows 
small,  progress  with  age,  is  better  suited  to  the  mental  ex- 
amination of  children? 

REFERENCES 

Squire,  Carrie  Ransom.  "Graded  Mental  Tests";  in  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology  (1912),  pp.  363-80,  430-43,  493-506. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  and  Childs,  H.  G.  "A  Tentative  Revision  and 
Extension  of  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence";  in 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (1912),  pp.  61,  133.  198,  277. 

Terman,  L.  M.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.  (1916). 

Town,  Clara  H.  The  Bind  Scale.  Translation.  Courier  Press, 
Lincoln,  111. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  pp.  441- 
511. 

Yerkes,  R.  M.,  and  Bridges,  J.  W.  A  Point  Scale  for  Measuring 
Mental  Ability.    (Baltimore,  1915.) 


170  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Experiment  No.  16 
correlation  between  tests 

Problem.  The  measurement  of  correlation  is  impor- 
tant in  the  study  of  a  variety  of  problems.  In  educa- 
tional psychology  correlation  refers  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  presence  of  a  certain  degree  of  one  mental 
trait  implies  the  presence  of  a  second  trait  in  a  corre- 
sponding degree.  Put  in  another  way,  the  degree  of 
correlation  between  two  traits  may  be  measured  by 
the  degree  of  correspondence  between  the  two  series 
or  orders  when  the  individuals  of  a  group  are  ranked 
according  to  their  eflSciency  in  each  of  the  two  proc- 
esses. 

Some  of  the  various  methods  of  calculating  degrees 
of  correlation  are  therefore  based  upon  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  group  of  individuals  in  ranks.  For  example, 
suppose  we  wish  to  determine  the  correlation  between 
height  and  weight  in  a  group  of  persons.  After  each  in- 
dividual has  been  weighed  and  measured  the  individ- 
uals are  given  a  ranking  according  to  each  of  the  two 
characteristics  separately.  If  the  same  person  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  two  lists,  —  that  is,  if  the  tallest  per- 
son is  also  the  heaviest,  —  and  if  each  person  occupies 
the  same  position  in  the  two  rankings  all  the  way  down, 
there  is  complete  positive  correlation.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  individual  who  is  at  the  top  of  one  ranking 
is  at  the  bottom  of  the  second,  and  if  this  relation  is 


TESTS  171 

maintained  throughout,  there  is  complete  negative 
correlation.  If  such  a  relation  obtains  between  the  two 
rankings  as  would  be  ascribed  only  to  the  operation  of 
chance,  there  is  no  correlation.  More  exact  methods 
take  account  not  simply  of  the  rank  or  position  of  an 
individual,  but  also  of  the  amount  of  his  deviation 
from  a  central  tendency. 

For  the  study  of  the  correlation  between  mental 
traits  various  methods  have  been  used.  A  brief  ac- 
count of  the  more  important  methods  is  given  in  the 
discussion  of  the  results  of  this  experiment.  For  fuller 
discussion  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  convenient  ac- 
count which  is  given  by  Whipple  in  his  Manual  of 
Mental  and  Physical  Tests.  Whipple  appends  a  bibli- 
ography which  may  be  used  as  a  guide  to  further  study. 
Examples  of  the  extensive  use  of  the  correlation 
method  in  psychology  are  to  be  found  in  the  investiga- 
tions of  Burt  and  Simpson. 

These  and  other  investigations  have  made  it  clear 
that  there  is  a  high  degree  of  correlation  between  some 
mental  traits,  and  a  low  degree  between  others.  The 
purpose  of  this  experiment  is  to  measure  the  correla- 
tion between  mental  traits  which  are  representative  of 
various  groups  of  mental  abilities.  Three  traits  or 
forms  of  ability  will  be  measured,  one  of  them  being 
tested  twice,  and  the  four  correlations  between  the 
various  pairs  will  be  found. 

Material  and  method.  The  abilities  which  are  to  be 
measured  are  (1)  rate  of  tapping,  as  an  illustration  of 


172 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


motor  ability;  (2)  pitch  discrimination,  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  sensory  discrimination;  and  (3)  the  opposites 
test,  as  an  illustration  of  the  more  complex  mental 
processes. 

(1)  The  tapping  test  is  a  simple  one  to  perform.  By 
means  of  a  stop-watch  and  an  apparatus  for  recording 
the  number  of  taps  the  rapidity  of  tapping  with  the 
hand  is  measured.  (See  Figure  7.)  The  number  of  taps 


IkppiBf 
Boud 

\ 

Fm.  7. 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CONNECTIONS  FOE  THE  TAPPING 
APPARATUS 


is  recorded  by  an  electric  counting  device.  A  stylus 
and  brass  plate  are  in  circuit  with  an  electric  battery 
or  other  circuit  and  with  an  electric  clock.  Each  time 
the  circuit  is  closed  by  bringing  the  stylus  in  contact 
with  the  brass  plate,  the  hand  of  the  clock  moves  for- 
ward one  point.  The  procedure  then  is  to  tap  continu- 
ously for  five  seconds,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  then 
read  oflf  the  record  on  the  clock.  The  clock  should  be 
set  at  zero  before  each  trial  by  turning  the  hand  for- 
ward. In  tapping,  the  forearm  should  be  allowed  to 


TESTS  178 

rest  on  the  table,  and  the  movement  should  be  made 
with  the  wrist.  Three  trials  of  five  seconds  duration 
each  should  be  made,  and  the  average  of  the  three 
taken. 

(2)  The  test  in  pitch  discrimination  consists  in  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  difference  between 
two  tones  which  must  exist  in  order  that  one  may  be 
distinguished  as  higher  than  the  other.  A  convenient 
and  accurate  form  of  apparatus  to  use  in  measuring 
pitch  discrimination  is  the  tuning  fork.  In  the  present 
experiment  a  standard  tuning  fork  of  435  vibrations  is 
used,  and  a  number  of  other  forks  differing  from  it  by 
varying  numbers  of  vibrations  for  making  the  com- 
parisons. 

The  same  general  method  of  procedure  is  to  be  used 
as  in  the  test  of  auditory  acuity:  that  is,  the  compari- 
son should  begin  with  tones  which  can  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished and  proceed  gradually  to  the  smaller  inter- 
vals, until  a  point  is  reached  at  which  eight  out  of  ten 
judgments  are  correct.  The  interval  between  the  two 
tones  as  found  thus  may  be  recorded  as  the  descending 
threshold.   This  threshold  is  sufficiently  reliable. 

Several  features  of  procedure  should  be  mentioned. 
The  fork  which  is  to  be  compared  with  the  standard 
should  first  be  put  in  position  with  the  standard  fork 
on  the  sounding  box.  Then,  after  a  "  ready  "  signal, 
one  of  the  forks  should  be  struck,  then  damped,  and 
then  the  second  struck  and  damped.  While  one  fork 
is  sounding  the  other  one  should  be  damped  to  pre- 


174  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

vent  sympathetic  vibration.  The  duration  of  each 
tone  and  of  the  interval  between  them  should  be  uni- 
formly about  two  seconds.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  any  regularity  in  striking  either  the  standard  or 
the  comparison  tone  first.  Occasionally  the  same  tone 
should  be  struck  twice  in  succession  as  a  check. 

(3)  The  procedure  in  the  opposites  test  is  simple.  A 
list  of  words  is  furnished  and  the  problem  is  to  supply 
for  each  one  a  word  which  has  the  opposite  meaning. 
The  task  is  to  supply  the  opposite  word  within  a 
time  limit  of  ten  seconds  for  each  word.  The  response 
words  should  be  written,  and  the  time  may  be  extended 
until  the  writing  of  a  word  is  completed  if  it  has  been 
begun  within  the  ten  seconds.  In  order  that  the  same 
test  may  be  used  by  subject  and  experimenter,  the  sub- 
ject should  take  the  printed  list  of  words  and  cover  it 
with  a  sheet  of  paper.  Each  word  may  be  uncovered  by 
sliding  a  card  so  that  the  opening  comes  over  it  at  a 
signal  given  by  the  experimenter  at  the  interval  men- 
tioned. The  subject  should  study  the  word  until  the 
next  signal  is  given  or  until  the  opposite  is  found.  The 
score  consists  in  the  total  number  of  opposites  cor- 
rectly given.  The  response,  to  be  correct,  need  not  be 
the  exact  word  given  in  the  response  list,  but  should 
be  a  synonym  of  it.  The  lists  of  stimulus  words  and 
specimen  opposites  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  which 
see. 

Treatment  of  results.  Since  the  chief  results  in  this 
experiment  appear  from  a  comparison  of  the  results 


TESTS  175 

from  the  various  individuals  of  the  group,  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  should  calculate  one  correlation  coeffi- 
cient. The  members  of  the  class  may  be  numbered. 
Number  1  should  calculate  the  first  correlation  men- 
tioned below,  number  2  the  second,  and  so  on.  Num- 
ber 5  should  begin  at  the  first,  and  so  on.  The  correla- 
tions to  be  calculated  are  as  follows:  — 

1.  Between  rate  of  tapping  and  pitch  discrimination. 

2.  Between  rate  of  tapping  and  first  opposites  test. 

3.  Between  pitch  discrimination  and  first  opposites 
test. 

4.  Between  first  and  second  opposites  tests. 

For  convenience  in  arranging  the  list  of  subjects,  in 
order  to  calculate  the  correlations,  they  should  be  des- 
ignated by  their  number.  Each  person  should  there- 
fore indicate  his  number  on  his  report. 

Each  individual  report  should  include,  beside  the 
usual  preliminary  statement  of  the  problem  and 
method,  the  full  account  of  the  results  of  each  test, 
including  introspections  and  description  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  were  encountered.  The  individual  report 
should  also  include  the  full  calculation  of  the  correla- 
tion coefficient,  and  not  merely  the  coefficient  itself. 

The  general  report  should  compare  the  degrees  of 
correlation  among  the  results  of  the  various  tests,  and 
should  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  the  significance  of  the 
differences  found.  Reference  should  be  made  to  at- 
tempted explanations  of  correlation  and  differences  in 
correlation  among  mental  processes,  such  as  Krueger 


176 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


and  Spearman's  theory  of  a  central  intelligence  or  of  a 
hierarchy  of  intelligences. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  The  scores  in  the  three 
tests  used  in  this  experiment  are  given  in  Table  XX, 


TABLE  XX.    SCORES  OF  NINETEEN  INDIVIDUALS  IN 
THE  TESTS 


Individual 


Rate  of 

Pitch  dis- 

Opposites 

tapping 

crimination 

test  I 

86 

8 

I7i 

38 

i 

iO. 

S8f 

1 

20i 

40 

17 

26 

40f 

2 

27J 

41f 

2 

17i 

41| 

8 

16 

42 

3 

15^ 

43 

17 

22 

43§ 

h 

20i 

45 

§ 

18J 

46 

1 

15 

46 

h 

23| 

47 

2 

in 

m 

h 

24 

471 

i 

24 

49f 

i 

26 

53 

2 

19^ 

•• 

8 

26 

Oppositet 
test  II 


1 
2 
8 
4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 


10 
20 
13 


11 
6 
10 
171 
10 
11 
10 
16 
18J 
18 


13 


with  the  subjects  arranged  in  their  order  in  the  tapping 
test.  Charts  VII  and  VIII  and  Table  XXI  illustrate 
methods  of  displaying  and  calculating  the  correlation 
between  the  first  and  second  opposites  tests.  These 
results  are  presented  more  for  the  purpose  of  illustrat- 
ing some  of  the  methods  of  examining  correlation  and 


ir 

20 


16 


10 


Score 


20 


«15 


TESTS 
A 


177 


— 

"" 

~ 

"" 

■ 

■' 

~ 

~ 

• 

1 

- 

f              15               20               25 

B 

— 

J 

J 

— 

i— 

T 

T 

n 

— 1 

— 

r— 

— < 

— 

_ 

L_ 

10 


Individual  AB     CDEFGH     I     JKLMU 

Chabt  Vn.    GRAPHIC  REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  CORRELATTOK 
BETWEEN  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  0PP0SITE8  TESTS 


II 


some  of  the  requirements  of  valid  procedure  than  as 
a  basis  for  much  discussion  of  the  facts  of  correlation 
themselves. 

Table  XXI  illustrates  a  form  of  procedure  which  is 
necessary,  in  many  cases,  to  obtain  a  reliable  calcula- 
tion of  correlation,  that  is,  the  determination  first  of 
the  reliability  of  the  measures  secured  in  each  test  by 


178 


EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 


itself.  This  is  secured  by  finding  the  correlation  be- 
tween two  performances  in  the  same  test,  using,  where 
the  nature  of  the  test  demands  it,  different  subject- 


TABLE  XXI.    CORRELATION  BETWEEN  FIRST   AND 
SECOND  OPPOSITES  TESTS 


X 

y 

Individ- 

Score 

Score 

diff.  of 

diff.  of 

ual 

in  I 

in  II 

scores  m 
I  from 
average 

scores  in 
II  from 
average 

X* 

y* 

xy 

1 

15 

10 

-4 

-3 

16 

9 

+12 

2 

15.5 

10 

-3.5 

-3 

12.25 

9 

+10.5 

S 

16 

6 

-3 

^7 

9 

49 

+21 

4 

17.5 

10 

-1.5 

-3 

2.25 

9 

+  4.6 

5 

17.5 

11 

-1.5 

-2 

2.25 

4 

+  3.0 

6 

17.5 

18.5 

-1.5 

+5.5 

2.25 

30.25 

-  8.2S 

7 

18.5 

11 

-    .5 

-2 

.25 

4 

+  1 

8 

19.5 

13 

+   .5 

0 

.25 

0 

0 

9 

20.5 

10 

+1.5 

-3 

2.25 

9 

-  4.5 

10 

20.5 

13 

+1.5 

0 

2.25 

0 

0 

11 

20.5 

20 

+1.5 

+7 

2.25 

49 

+10.5 

12 

22 

17.5 

+3 

+4.5 

9 

20.25 

+13.5 

13 

23.5 

16 

+4.5 

+3 

20.25 

9 

+13.5 

14 

24 

18 

+5 

+5 

25 

25 

+25 

Average. 

19 

13 

105.5 

226.5 

101.75 

Xx-  y 


101.75 
164.6  ' 


yftxi-t  y*     Vl06.5X22e.6 

sum  of  the  products  of  a;  and  y 


r65.8 


y*)) 


square  root  of  (the  sum  of  x*  X  the  sum  of 


matter  in  the  two  performances.  If  this  correlation  is 
not  fairly  high  —  above  .60  —  the  degree  of  correla- 
tion between  this  test  and  others  is  of  little  significance, 
since  the  scores  are  not  accurate  measures  of  the  ability 


TESTS 


170 


in  question.  A  formula  has  been  developed  by  Spear- 
man to  correct  a  coefficient  of  correlation  when  it  is 


B| 


Positive  correlation 


Negative  correlation 


" 

~ 

" 

■" 

'" 

~ 

~ 

/ 

a 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

Ascending  - 


— 

~ 

" 

~ 

1 

~ 

" 

"■ 

'— 

— 

' 

a 

/ 

/' 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

s 

OZL 

s. 

s 

s. 

\ 

\ 

s. 

s 

i^ 

s. 

s 

^ 

Ascending 

*" 

-U 

T  - 

-^c 

.  ■? 

s 

/ 

S, 

-r- 

/ 

S 

/ 

\ 

_^i 

7 

\ 

/ 

X 

/ 

s. 

/ 

s 

S^ 

/ 

s. 

/ 

s 

^ 

/ 

\ 

^ 

Ascending  — *■ 


Ascending  - 


Chart  Vni.  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  INTERPRETATION  OP 
THE  TWO  GRAPHIC  METHODS  OP  DISPLAYING  CORRELATION 
USED  IN  CHART  VII 

(A)  illustrates  the  method  of  plotting  the  position  of  each  individnal  with 
reference  to  the  two  tests  by  designating  bis  position  with  reference  to  both 
coiSrdinates,  one  of  which  represents  the  scale  of  scores  in  one  test  and  the 
other  the  scale  in  the  second  test.  (B)  illustrates  the  method  in  which  the 
positions  in  the  two  tests  are  plotted  separately  with  reference  to  the  same 
coordinate. 


reduced  by  lack  of  precision  in  the  results  in  the  indi- 
vidual tests,  but  the  reliability  of  this  formula  is 
doubtful,  and  it  is  far  better  to  perfect  the  methods  of 


180  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

giving  the  tests  until  their  results  are  consistent.  In 
the  case  before  us  two  series  of  opposites  were  used 
with  the  same  persons.  The  correlation  between  them 
appears  from  the  table  to  be  satisfactory  (r  =  65.8), 
though  it  might  well  be  higher. 

This  table  illustrates  the  most  precise  method  of 
calculating  correlation,  namely,  by  the  Pearson  prod- 
ucts-moment method.  This  and  the  two  methods 
which  Spearman  has  derived,  the  rank  method  and  the 
foot-rule  method,  are  described  in  Whipple  and  criti- 
cally discussed  in  Brown. 

The  products-moment  method  may  be  compared 
with  two  graphic  methods  by  reference  to  Chart  VII. 
In  the  first  graphic  method,  designated  A,  the  two 
scores  of  each  individual  are  represented  by  a  single 
position.  This  position  is  determined  by  reference  to 
two  coordinates,  one  of  which  provides  the  scale  of 
performance  in  one  of  the  tests,  and  the  other  the  scale 
of  performance  in  the  other  test.  -, ' 

If  the  dots  which  indicate  these  positions  group  them- 
selves along  a  line  which  divides  the  angles  formed  by 
the  two  coordinates,  such  as  the  line  in  figure  Aa, 
Chart  VIII,  there  is  evidence  of  correlation,  since  each 
individual  occupies  about  the  same  position  in  the  two 
tests.  If  high  standing  in  one  test  is  regularly  accom- 
panied by  low  standing  in  the  other,  so  that  the  corre- 
lation is  negative,  the  dots  will  be  grouped  about  a  line 
having  somewhat  the  general  position  of  that  in  A6, 
Chart  VIII.   In  the  case  before  us  the  grouping  indi- 


TESTS  181 

cates  a  fairly  high  degree  of  correlation^  as  does  the 
correlation  coeflBcient. 

In  Chart  VII,  B,  another  graphic  method  is  illus- 
trated. In  this  case  the  scores  of  each  test  are  plotted 
separately,  and  are  represented  by  a  scale  or  scales 
along  a  single  coordinate.  The  positions  in  the  other 
direction  are  arbitrarily  arranged  along  the  other  coor- 
dinate. Thus  the  scores  in  each  test  are  represented  by 
a  series  of  dots  or  lines,  and  the  relation  of  the  two  series 
represents  the  degree  of  correlation  present.  Chart 
VIII,  B,  a  and  6,  represent  regular  and  extreme  posi- 
tive and  negative  correlation,  resj)ectively,  when  one 
of  the  series  is  arranged  in  regular  ascending  or  de- 
scending order. 

Chart  VII,  B,  indicates  an  approach  to  a  parallelism 
of  the  two  lines,  indicating  considerable  positive  corre- 
lation. The  ready  comparison  is  made  possible,  as  al- 
ready suggested,  by  arranging  one  of  the  series  in  as- 
cending or  descending  order.  In  this  case  the  scores  of 
Test  I  were  arranged  in  ascending  order. 

Contrasted  with  the  considerable  positive  correla- 
tion shown  in  Chart  VII,  Chart  IX,  which  represents 
the  scores  of  the  tapping  and  pitch  discrimination 
tests,  exhibits  certainly  no  positive  correlation,  and  no 
large  amount  of  correlation  of  any  sort. 

Likewise  the  products-moment  method  gives  no 
correlation  between  the  scores  in  the  rate  of  tapping 
and  the  first  opposites  tests  (r  —  .07). 

There  are  also  other  frequently  used  methods  of 


3  o 
X  8 


C  » 


o 


.  5  S-d 


K 


TESTS  188 

showing  correlation.  One  rough  method  was  illus- 
trated in  formulating  the  results  of  Experiment  No.  11. 
Another  method  of  somewhat  similar  nature  was  used 
by  W.  F.  Dearborn  and  others  in  studying  school 
grades.  This  method  consists  in  arranging  the  two  sets 
of  measures  in  two  distributions,  dividing  the  measures 
in  each  distribution  into  three  or  more  equal  groups  ac- 
cording to  their  rank,  and  finding  the  percentage  of 
cases  which  fall  into  the  corresponding  groups  in  the 
two  arrays.  This  percentage  has  been  termed  the  per- 
centage of  retention.  The  significance  of  the  percent- 
age of  retention  is  not  altogether  clear.  It  certainly 
varies  according  to  the  number  of  groups  used,  since 
this  affects  the  percentage  which  represents  the  lack  of 
any  positive  correlation.  Further,  where  three  groups 
are  used,  at  least,  a  purely  chance  relationship  and 
complete  negative  correlation  might  be  represented  by 
the  same  percentage,  33i. 

In  general  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  that 
whenever  possible  it  is  better  to  use  complete  fre- 
quency tables  on  the  same  principle  as  Chart  VII,  A, 
or  arranged  as  in  Experiment  No.  11,  or  some  graphic 
method  that  displays  all  the  facts.  These  facts  should 
be  analyzed  and  the  various  types  of  cases  classified. 
Where  it  is  highly  desirable  to  get  an  expression  of  the 
general  degree  of  correlation,  one  of  the  crude  methods 
may  be  used  where  only  very  rough  results  are  de- 
sired. When  more  precise  results  are  desirable  the 
Pearson  method  is  to  be  recommended,  but  it  must 


184  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

be  remembered  that  the  same  single  coeflScient  may 
represent  many  different  sorts  of  relationship. 

With  reference  to  the  facts  of  correlation  brought 
out  in  this  experiment,  it  appears  that,  so  far  as  our 
results  go,  motor  dexterity  is  not  correlated  positively 
with  sensory  discrimination,  or  sensory  discrimination 
with  the  recognition  of  the  relationship  of  opposites. 
This  result  is  fairly  typical.  It  was  planned  to  include 
another  function  comparable  in  the  kind  of  mental 
performance  required  with  the  opposites  test,  named 
the  Ries  test,  referred  to  in  the  list  of  references.  But 
the  two  examples  of  the  Ries  test  which  were  used  did 
not  give  correlated  results,  and  it  was  not  included. 

Extension  of  the  experiment.  This  experiment  may 
be  extended  by  attempting  to  work  out  satisfactory 
forms  of  the  Ries  test,  and  also  by  including  other 
tests.  See  Burt  and  B.  R.  Simpson, 


TESTS  185 


QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Suggest  some  of  the  practical  bearings  of  the  facts  regarding 
correlation. 

2.  What  is  the  relation  between  correlation  of  mental  traits  and 
formal  discipline? 

8.  What  bearing  does  the  presence  or  absence  of  correlation  have 

upon  the  view  of  the  mind  as  made  up  of  relatively  isolated 

traits  or  of  closely  related  ones? 
4.  Compare  the  concepts  of  correlation  and  of  specialization  in 

their  bearing  on  vocational  guidance. 
6.  How  may  correlation  be  used  in  selecting  a  test  for  mental 

matiu-ity  or  for  intelligence? 

6.  Illustrate  concretely  the  fact  that  the  same  correlation  coef- 
ficient may  indicate  any  one  of  several  kinds  of  relationship. 
What  is  the  practical  application  of  this  fact? 

7.  Indicate  roughly  how  much  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the 
result  of  the  application  of  a  single  test  to  an  individual  to 
measure  the  presence  of  some  trait,  when  the  correlation  (r) 
between  the  scores  in  the  test  and  the  trait  is  .70. 

8.  Indicate  how  irrelevant  factors,  as  age  or  practice,  may  falsify 
a  correlation  coefficient  if  they  are  not  taken  account  of. 

0.  What  is  the  effect  of  chance  errors?  How  are  they  to  be 
treated? 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  W.  C.  "On  Correlation  of  Mental  and  Motor  Ability 
in  School  Children";  in  American  Journal  of  Psychology  (1901),  vol. 
12,  pp.  193-205. 

Brown,  W.  The  Essentials  of  Mental  Measurement.  (Cambridge 
University  Press.  1911.) 

Burt,  C.  "Experimental  Tests  of  General  Intelligence";  in  British 
Journal  of  Psychology  (1909),  vol.  3,  pp.  94-177. 

Clement,  J.  A.  Standardization  of  the  Schools  of  Kansas.  (Chicago, 
1912.) 

Dearborn,  W.  F.  The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in  the  High 
School  and  in  the  University.  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
no.  312,  High  School  Series  no.  6. 

Gilbert,  C.  A.  Researches  on  the  Mental  and  Physical  Developmeni 
of  School  Children.  Yale  Psychological  Studies  (1894),  vol.  2,  pp. 
40-100. 

Heck,  W.  H.  Mental  Discipline  (2d  edition),  pp.  96  ff. 


186  EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION 

Krueger,  F.,  and  Spearman,  C,  "Die  Correlation  Zwischen  ver- 
scheidenen  geistigen  Leistungsfahigkeiten";  in  ZeiUchrijt  Jiir  Pay- 
chologie,  etc.  (1907),  vol.  44,  pp.  50-114. 

Ries,  Georg.  "Beitrage  zur  Methodik  der  Intelligenz-prtlfung"; 
in  ZvUschrift  fiir  Psychologie,  etc.  (1910),  vol.  56,  pp.  21-343. 

Simpson,  B.  R.  Correlations  of  Mental  Abilities.  (Columbia  Uni- 
versity Press.) 

Spearman,  C.  "General  Intelligence  Objectively  Determined  and 
Measm-ed";  in  American  Journal  of  Psychology  (1904),  vol.  15, 
pp.  201-93. 

Stern,  W.  Psychological  Methods  of  Testing  Intelligence.  Tr.  by 
G.  M.  Whipple.   (Warwick  &  York,  Baltimore.) 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  An  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Mental  and 
Social  Measurements.   (New  York,  1904.) 

Whipple,  G.  M.  MamuU  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  vol.  1, 
chap.  m. 


APPENDIX 

FIGURES  AND  TESTS  FOR  USE  WITH  THE 
EXPERIMENTS 


a») 


(190) 


FiaURE  FOR  EXPERIMIEKT  3  — TAIX  UNICURSAL  LABTEINTH 


aw) 


SERIES  OF  SYLLABLES  FOR  EXPERIMENT  5 


Series  I 

Series  la 

Series  II 

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Series  IV 

Series  V 

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POEM  TO  BE  USED  IN  EXPERIMENT  6 
ENOCH  ARDEN 

Long  lines  of  cliff  breaking  have  left  a  chasm; 
And  in  the  chasm  are  foam  and  yellow  sands; 
Beyond,  red  roofs  about  a  narrow  wharf 
In  cluster;  then  a  moulder'd  church;  and  higher 
A  long  street  climbs  to  one  tall-tower'd  mill; 
And  high  in  heaven  behind  it  a  gray  down 
With  Danish  barrows;  and  a  hazelwood. 
By  autumn  nutters  haunted,  flourishes 
Green  in  a  cuplike  hollow  of  the  down. 
Here  on  this  beach  a  hundred  years  ago. 
Three  children  of  three  houses,  Annie  Lee, 
The  prettiest  little  damsel  in  the  port. 
And  Philip  Ray,  the  miller's  only  son. 
And  Enoch  Arden,  a  rough  sailor's  lad 
Made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  play'd 
Among  the  waste  and  lumber  of  the  shore. 
Hard  coils  of  cordage,  swarthy  fishing-nets. 
Anchors  of  rusty  fluke,  and  boats  up-drawn; 
And  built  their  castles  of  dissolving  sand 
To  watch  them  overflow'd,  or  following  up 
And  flying  the  white  breaker,  daily  left 
The  little  footprint  daily  wash'd  away. 

A  narrow  cave  ran  in  beneath  the  cliff; 
In  this  the  children  play'd  at  keeping  house. 
Enoch  was  host  one  day,  Philip  the  next. 
While  Annie  still  was  mistress;  but  at  times 
Enoch  would  hold  possession  for  a  week: 
**This  is  my  house  and  this  my  little  wife." 
**Mine  too,"  said  Philip;  "turn  and  turn  about"; 
When,  if  they  quarrell'd,  Enoch  stronger-made 
Was  master.  Then  would  Philip,  his  blue  eyes 
All  flooded  with  the  helpless  wrath  of  tears. 


194  APPENDIX 

Shriek  out,  "I  bate  you,  Enoch,"  and  at  this 
The  little  wife  would  weep  for  company. 
And  pray  them  not  to  quarrel  for  her  sake. 
And  say  she  would  be  little  wife  to  both. 

But  when  the  dawn  of  rosy  childhood  past, 
And  the  new  warmth  of  life's  ascending  sim 
Was  felt  by  either,  either  fixt  his  heart 
On  that  one  girl;  and  Enoch  spoke  his  love. 
But  Philip  loved  in  silence;  and  the  girl 
Seem'd  kinder  unto  Philip  than  to  him; 
But  she  loved  Enoch,  tho'  she  knew  it  not. 
And  would  if  ask'd  deny  it.  Enoch  set 
A  purpose  evermore  before  his  eyes. 
To  hoard  all  savings  to  the  uttermost. 
To  purchase  his  own  boat,  and  make  a  home 
For  Annie;  and  so  prosper'd  that  at  last 
A  luckier  or  a  bolder  fisherman, 
'  A  carefuller  in  peril,  did  not  breathe 
For  leagues  along  that  breaker-beaten  coast 
Than  Enoch.  Likewise  had  he  served  a  year 
On  board  a  merchantman,  and  made  himself 
Full  sailor;  and  he  thrice  had  pluck'd  a  life 
From  the  dread  sweep  of  the  down-streaming  seas. 
And  all  men  look'd  upon  him  favorably. 
And  ere  he  touch'd  his  one-and-twentieth  May 
He  purchased  his  own  boat,  and  made  a  home 
For  Annie,  neat  and  nestlike,  halfway  up 
The  narrow  street  that  clamber'd  toward  the  mill. 

Then,  on  a  golden  autumn  eventide. 
The  younger  people  making  holiday, 
With  bag  and  sack  and  basket,  great  and  small, ' 
Went  nutting  to  the  hazels.  Philip  stay'd  — • 
His  father  lying  sick  and  needing  him  — 
An  hour  behind;  but  as  he  climb'd  the  hill. 
Just  where  the  prone  edge  of  the  wood  began 
To  feather  toward  the  hollow,  saw  the  pair, 
Enoch  and  Annie,  sitting  hand-in-hand. 


APPENDIX  195 

His  large  gray  eyes  and  weather-beaten  face 
All-kindled  by  a  still  and  sacred  fire, 
That  bum'd  as  on  an  altar.  Philip  look'd 
And  in  their  eyes  and  faces  read  his  doom; 
Then,  as  their  faces  drew  together,  groan'd. 
And  slipt  aside,  and  like  a  wounded  life 
Crept  down  into  the  hollows  of  the  wood; 
There,  while  the  rest  were  loud  in  merry-making. 
Had  his  dark  hour  unseen,  and  rose  and  past 
Bearing  a  lifelong  hunger  in  his  heart. 

So  these  were  wed,  and  merrily  rang  the  bells. 
And  merrily  ran  the  years,  seven  happy  years. 
Seven  happy  years  of  health  and  competence. 
And  mutual  love  and  honorable  toil. 
With  children,  fii-st  a  daughter.  In  him  woke. 
With  his  first  babe's  first  cry,  the  noble  wish 
To  save  all  earnings  to  the  uttermost. 
And  give  his  child  a  better  bringing-up 
Than  his  had  been,  or  hers;  a  wish  renew'd. 
When  two  years  after  came  a  boy  to  be 
The  rosy  idol  of  her  solitudes. 
While  Enoch  was  abroad  on  wrathful  seas. 
Or  often  journeying  landward;  for  in  truth 
Enoch's  white  horse,  and  Enoch's  ocean-spoil 
In  ocean-smelling  osier,  and  his  face, 
Rough-redden'd  with  a  thousand  winter  gales. 
Not  only  to  the  market-cross  were  known. 
But  in  the  leafy  lanes  behind  the  down. 
Far  as  the  portal-warding  lion-whelp 
And  peacock  yew-tree  of  the  lonely  Hall, 
Whose  Friday  fare  was  Enoch's  ministering. 

Then  came  a  change,  as  all  things  human  change.      « 
Ten  miles  to  northward  of  the  narrow  port 
Open'd  a  larger  haven.   Thither  used 
Enoch  at  times  to  go  by  land  or  sea; 
And  once  when  there,  and  clambering  on  a  mast 
In  harbor,  by  mischance  he  slipt  and  fell. 


196  APPENDIX 

A  limb  was  broken  when  they  lifted  him; 
And  while  he  lay  recovering  there,  his  wife 
Bore  him  another  son,  a  sickly  one. 
Another  hand  crept  too  across  his  trade 
Taking  her  bread  and  theirs;  and  on  him  fell, 
Altho*  a  grave  and  staid  God-fearing  man, 
Yet  lying  thus  inactive,  doubt  and  gloom,  j 
He  seem'd,  as  in  a  nightmare  of  the  night. 
To  see  his  children  leading  evermore 
Low  miserable  lives  of  hand-to-mouth. 
And  her  he  loved  a  beggar.  Then  he  pray'd,  ^ 
**Save  them  from  this,  whatever  comes  to  me." 
And  while  he  pray'd,  the  master  of  that  ship 
Enoch  had  served  in,  hearing  his  mischance. 
Came,  for  he  knew  the  man  and  valued  him,  " 
Reporting  of  his  vessel  China-bound, 
And  wanting  yet  a  boatswain.  Would  he  go? 
There  yet  were  many  weeks  before  she  sail'd, 
Sail'd  from  this  port.  Would  Enoch  have  the  place? 
And  Enoch  all  at  once  assented  to  it. 
Rejoicing  at  that  answer  to  his  prayer. 

So  now  that  shadow  of  mischance  appear'd 
No  graver  than  as  when  some  little  cloud 
Cuts  ofif  the  fiery  highway  of  the  sun. 
And  isles  a  light  in  the  ojBSng.  Yet  the  wife  — 
When  he  was  gone  —  the  children  —  what  to  do? 
Then  Enoch  lay  long-pondering  on  his  plans: 
To  sell  the  boat  —  and  yet  he  loved  her  well  — 
How  many  a  rough  sea  had  he  weather 'd  in  her! 
He  knew  her,  as  a  horseman  knows  his  horse  — 
And  yet  to  sell  her  —  then  with  what  she  brought 
Buy  goods  and  stores  —  set  Annie  forth  in  trade 
With  all  that  seamen  needed  or  their  wives  — 
So  might  she  keep  the  house  while  he  was  gone. 
Should  he  not  trade  himself  out  yonder?  go 
This  voyage  more  than  once?  yea,  twice  or  thrice  — 
As  oft  as  needed  —  last,  returning  rich. 
Become  the  master  of  a  larger  craft. 


APPENDIX  197 

With  fuller  profits  lead  an  easier  life. 
Have  all  his  pretty  young  ones  educated. 
And  pass  his  days  in  peace  among  his  own. 

Thus  Enoch  in  his  heart  determined  all; 
Then  moving  homeward  came  on  Annie  pale. 
Nursing  the  sickly  babe,  her  latest-bom. 
Forward  she  started  with  a  happy  cry. 
And  laid  the  feeble  infant  in  his  arms; 
Whom  Enoch  took,  and  handled  all  his  limbs. 
Appraised  his  weight  and  fondled  fatherlike. 
But  had  no  heart  to  break  his  piuposes 
To  Annie,  till  the  morrow,  when  he  spoke. 

Then  first  since  Enoch's  golden  ring  had  girt 
Her  finger,  Annie  fought  against  his  will; 
Yet  not  with  brawling  opposition  she. 
But  manifold  entreaties,  many  a  tear. 
Many  a  sad  kiss  by  day,  by  night,  renew'd  — 
Sure  that  all  evil  would  come  out  of  it  — 
Besought  him,  supplicating,  if  he  cared 
For  her  or  his  dear  children,  not  to  go. 
He  not  for  his  own  self  caring,  but  her. 
Her  and  her  children,  let  her  plead  in  vain; 
So  grieving  held  his  will,  and  bore  it  thro'. 

For  Enoch  parted  with  his  old  sea-friend. 
Bought  Annie  goods  and  stores,  and  set  his  hand 
To  fit  their  little  streetward  sitting-room 
With  shelf  and  corner  for  the  goods  and  stores.  , 
So  all  day  long  till  Enoch's  last  at  home. 
Shaking  their  pretty  cabin,  hammer  and  axe. 
Auger  and  saw,  while  Annie  seem'd  to  hear 
Her  own  death-scaffold  raising,  shrill 'd  and  rang. 
Till  this  was  ended,  and  his  careful  hand,  — 
The  space  was  narrow,  —  having  order'd  all 
Almost  as  neat  and  close  as  Nature  packs 
Her  blossom  or  her  seedling,  paused;  and  he. 
Who  needs  would  work  for  Annie  to  the  last. 
Ascending  tired,  heavily  slept  till  morn. 


(M8) 


(iM) 


200  APPENDIX 

No.  2  —  11-PoiNT  Type, 
12  £m3  Line 

No  elaborate  discussion  or 
criticism  of  the  methods  by 
which  the  preceding  material 
has  been  gathered  can  be  at- 
tempted. We  have  gone  on 
the  assimiption  that  the  various 
studies  have  been,  at  least  in 
general,  reliable.  The  interests 
that  have  been  mentioned  are, 
most  of  them,  well  recognized 
by  all  observers  of  children,  and, 
while  there  may  be  errors  in 
observing  and  interpreting  the 
facts  here  set  forth,  the  general 
scheme  as  a  whole  seems  fairly 
consistent  when  we  reflect  upon 
the  great  variety  of  sources 
from  which  the  material  has 
come.  The  whole  subject  of 
methodology  does,  however, 
need  a  thorough  investigation. 
The  object  of  all  this  class  of 
studies  should  be  to  get  ac- 
curate data  as  to  the  child's 
spontaneous  expressions  and  jlc- 
tivities,  with  definite  record 
as  to  age,  sex,  and  previous  life- 


APPENDIX  201 

I 

history.  Every  study  must  be 
accompanied  by  a  careful  state- 
ment of  the  conditions  under 
which  the  material  is  secured. 
The  real  child-psychologists  are 
endeavoring  more  than  ever 
before  to  devise  tests  that  will 
eliminate  as  nearly  as  possible 


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APPENDIX 


FIGURES  AND  WORDS  FOR  USE  IN 
EXPERIMENT  10 


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fim  tok    lox  sif  ras 


B 

Would  you  like  to  go? 
There  are  two  left. 
Let  us  take  the  car. 
Why  did  you  remain? 
The  sun  has  come  up. 
Do  not  wait  longer. 


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APPENDIX 


218 


MATERIAL  FOR  USE  WITH  EXPERIMENT  15 


PART  B,  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES 


Series  I 


6 


No.  of 

words 

an  boy  the 
apple  greedy  ate 

dog  his  faithful 
the  slowly  followed 
master 

wolves  outran  the 
swift  pursuing 
horse  the  soon 

footsteps  of  they 
soon  the  heard 
afterward  sound  many 


10 


quickly  the  as 
cat  flew  siezed 
locust  the  up 
it 


No.  of 

toords 

clearing  on  as 
the  side  they 
fugitive  other  the 
entered  the  disappeared 


12 


14 


16 


and  his  closed 
secretary  the  himself 
office  door  the 
seated  of  desk 
the  at 

watch  the  train 
at  would  his 
late  traveler  twenty 
the  knew  minutes 
and  be  glanced 
that 


214 


APPENDIX 


Series  II 


6 


No.oS 

words 

hungry  bone  the 
gnawed  dog  his 

ran  the  ditch 
horse  the  into 
frightened 

very  prize  the 
hard  Mary  and 
won  studied 

some  said  the 
steam  boy  saw 
he  that  yachts 


10 


and  slowly  the 
channel  ship  thru 
the  narrow  long 
sailed 


No.  of 

words 

every  the  approached 
herd  cautiously  it 
side  hunters  the 
and  on  surrounded 


12 


the  fence-tops  all 
had  snow  when 
14    day  the  drifts 
up  the  to 
were  fallen 

shed  the  further 
their  departed  tools 
16    in  workmen  disturbance 
homes  placed  the 
without  and  to 
their 


APPENDIX  215 


EXPERIMENT   15  — KEY  TO  SENTENCE 
ARRANGEMENT 

Time 
Series  I  {including  vrriiing) 

The  greedy  boy  ate  an  apple 14 

The  faithful  dog  followed  his  master  slowly 22 

The  swift  horse  soon  outran  the  pursuing  wolves ...   29 
Soon  afterward  they  heard  the  sound  of  many  foot- 
steps   33 

As  the  locust  flew  up  the  cat  quickly  seized  it ... .  39  * 
As  they  entered  the  clearing  the  fugitive  disap- 
peared on  the  other  side 47 

The  secretary  closed  the  door  of  the  oflBce  and 

seated  himself  at  his  desk 5Q 

The  traveler  glanced  at  his  watch  and  knew  that 
the  train  would  be  twenty  minutes  late 66 

Series  II 

The  hungry  dog  gnawed  his  bone 16 

The  frightened  horse  ran  into  the  ditch 15 

Mary  studied  very  hard  and  won  the  prize 20 

The  boy  said  that  he  saw  some  steam  yachts 30 

The  ship  sailed  thru  the  long  and  narrow  channel.  38.5 
The  hunters  approached  the  herd  and  cautiously 

surrounded  it  on  every  side 51 .2 

When  the  snow  had  fallen  all  day  the  drifts  were  up 

to  the  fence-tops 54 .  25 

The  workmen  placed  their  tools  in  the  shed  and 
departed  to  their  homes  without  further  dis- 
turbance   64 . 8 

I  Estimated. 


216 


APPENDIX 


STIMULI  FOR  USE  WITH  EXPERIMENT  16 


Stimulus  List  No.  1 

1.  intelligent 

2.  however 

3.  enthusiastic  . . . 

4.  traitor 

5.  intricate 

6.  sublime 

7.  petty 

8.  languor 

9.  disdain 

10.  thorough 

11.  vacillating 

12.  fastidious 

13.  important 

14.  spendthrift  .  . . , 

15.  motion 

16.  dextrous 

17.  serious 

18.  gentle 

19.  unless 

20.  although 

21.  prohibit 

22.  uncouth 

23.  conceal 

24.  precise 

25.  rigid 

26.  suave 

27.  proficient 

28.  belief 

29.  cruel 

30.  result 


Opposites  Test 

Stimulus  List  No. 

1.  to  respect  .  . . 

2.  to  hold 

3.  exciting 

4.  simple 

5.  deceitful  . . . . 

6.  permanent  . . 

7.  to  degrade  . . 

8.  level 

9.  suspicious  . . . 

10.  pride 

11.  despondent  . 

12.  venturesome 

13.  silly 

14.  busy 

15.  preserve  . . . . 

16.  abet 

17.  abeyance  . . . 

18.  abnegation  . . 

19.  absolve 

20.  alternative  . . 

21.  captious  .  . . . 

22.  equivocal  . . . 

23.  fame 

24.  hazard 

25.  hypocrisy . . . . 

26.  imminent  . . . 

27.  inherent  .... 

28.  pique 

29.  satisfy 

30.  terse  


APPENDIX 


«17 


RESPONSE  LIST  FOR  EXPERIMENT  16 


OpjKtsites  Test 


Response  List  No.  1 

1.  stupid 

2.  accordingly  (hence)  * 

3.  indifferent 

4.  patriot 

5.  simple 

6.  commonplace 

7.  noble 

8.  energy,  vigor 

9.  respect 

10.  superficial 

11.  constant 

12.  negligent,  slip-shod 

13.  insignificant 

14.  miser 

15.  rest 

16.  clumsy 

17.  frivolous 

18.  rough 

19.  if 

20.  because 

21.  permit 

22.  cultured,  polished 

23.  reveal 

24.  vague,  careless 

25.  pliable 

26.  brusque 

27.  unskilled 

28.  doubt 

29.  sympathetic 

30.  cause 


Response  List  No.  2 

1.  despise 

2.  to  release 

3.  soothing 

4.  complex 

5.  frank,  truthful 

6.  temporary 

7.  to  ennoble 

8.  tilted 

9.  trustful 

10.  humility 

11.  cheerful 

12.  cautious 

13.  sensible 

14.  idle 

15.  destroy 

16.  frustrate,  impede,  hinder 

17.  enforcement,  operation 

18.  claim,  demand 

19.  condemn 

20.  compulsion,  necessity 

21.  fair 

22.  plain,  unambiguous 

23.  oblivion 

24.  certainty 

25.  sincerity 

26.  improbable,  contingent 

27.  incidental,  unconnected 

28.  complacency 

29.  disappoint 

30.  diflFuse 


1  Synonyms  may  be  allowed.    Do  not  use  the  prefix  un. 


INDEX 


Acoumeter,  154. 

Age  diflFerences,  23,  30. 

Analysis,  32/. 

Analytical  scale,  83,  89,  91,  92. 

Astigmatism,  141  Jf. 

Audiometer,  152. 

Ayer,  F.  C,  31. 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  82,  94. 

Ayres  scale,  83,  89,  90,  91,  92. 

Bach,  T.,  151,  161. 
Bagley,  W.  C,  41,  185. 
Bair,  J.  H.,  13,  24. 
Bergstrbm,  J.  E.,  49. 
Binet-Simon     measuring     scale, 

169. 
Book,  W.  F.,  13,  24. 
Bridges,  J.  W.,  169. 
Brown,  W.,  180,  185. 
Bryan,  6,  13,  20,  24. 
Burt,  C,  171,  184,  185. 

Chads,  H.  G.,  169. 
Clement,  J.  A.,  185. 
Colvin,  S.  S.,  50,  63. 
Coordination,  motor,  73/. 
Correlation,     60,     115,     119/., 

170/ 
Courtis,  S.  A.,  138. 
Cowling,  D.  J.,  27,  31. 

Dearborn,  W.  F.,  24,  107,  109, 

111,  183,  185. 
Dewey,  J.,  40,  139. 
Dodge,  R.,  95,  107. 
Drawing,  25/. 

Ebbinghaus,  H.,  63,  71. 
Elliot,  87. 
Erdmann,  95. 
Eulenberg,  H.,  151,  161. 
Experiment,  5,  7,  8,  10,  158/. 


Experiment,  figures  for  drawing, 

189/. 
Experimentation,     method     of, 

4/;  rules  for,  9/. 

Form  in  handwriting,  82/. 
Freeman,  F.  N.,  81, 34,  131, 139. 

Gilbert,  C.  A.,  185. 

Grading,  reliability  in,  87/. 

Gray,  C.  T.,  92,  93,  94. 

Grouped  objects,  arrangement 
of,  208/. 

Grouping  in  number  apprehen- 
sion, 133/. 

Hand  tracer,  73. 
Handwriting,  analysis  of,  72/. 
Handwriting  scales,  83,  note. 
Barter,  6,  13,  20,  24. 
Heck,  W.  H.,  50,  185. 
Heterophoria,  141/. 
Huey,  E.  B.,  95,  107,  109. 
Hyperopia,  41/ 

Identical   elements   in   transfer, 

147/. 
Individual  differences,  20/.,  38/., 

53,  60,  67/.,  75,  114,  120/., 

137/,  147/.,  156/,  165/,  176. 
Instruction    in    learning,    17/, 

28,  32. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  27,  31,  81, 108,  109. 
116,  119,  131,  139. 

Kelley,  T.  L.,  90. 
Kinetoscopic  method,  108. 
King,  Irving,  198. 
Krueger,  F.,  175,  186. 

Labyrinth,  Tait,  36. 
Lange,  R.,  63. 


220 


INDEX 


Lay,  W..  61.  63. 

Learning,  experiments  in,  2  /., 

12/- 

perceptual,  '15  ff. 

problem  solving,  32. 

sensori-motor,  13  jf. 

types  of,  12. 
Lehman  acoumeter,  155. 
Lindley,  E,  H.,  36,  40. 

Maddox  rods,  146. 
Manuel,  H.  T.,  90,  94. 
McAllister,  C.  N.,  109. 
McClellan,  J.  A.,  139. 
McCallie  vision  test,  143. 
Memorizing, 

of  sense  material,  64  jf . 

part  method  of,  65  jf. 

permanence,  54/. 

recall  during  memorizing,  55  /. 

rote,  51/. 

whole  method  of,  65  Jf. 
Memory,  immediate,  162/. 
Mental  tests,  3/. 
Messmer,  114. 

Meumann,  E.,  51,  63,  71,  114. 
Mirror  for  observing  eye  move- 
ments, 95. 
Mirror  tracing  apparatus,  14/., 

41/ 
Mnemonic  devices,  53/. 
MUnsterberg,  H.,  138. 
Myopia,  141/. 

Nonsense  syllables,  192. 

Observation     as     a     scientific 

method,  4/. 
Opposites  test,  174  /.;  material 

for,  216/. 

Pearson,  120,  180,  183. 
Pintner,  R.,  90. 
Pitch  discrimination,  173/. 
Poem  for  memorizing,  193/. 
Psychology,  educational,  1/ 
Puzzle  box,  34/. 


Reading, 

eflBciency  in,  117/. 

eye  movements,  105/ 

fusion  of  elements  in,  113/. 
Reconstruction     of      sentences, 

164/;  material  for,  213/. 
Ries,  G.,  184,  186. 
Ruger,  H.  A.,  24,  40. 

Simpson,  B.  R.,  171,  184,  186. 
Spearman,    C,    176,    179,    180. 

186. 
Squire,  Carrie  Ramson,  169. 
Starch.  D.,  24,  87,  90,  131. 
Steele,  W.  M.,  109. 
Stenopaic  lens  (Stevens),  146. 
Stern,  W.,  186. 
Swift.  E.  J..  13.  20,  24. 

Tachistoscope,  111. 

Tachistoscopic  method,  110. 138. 

Tachistoscopic  stimuli.  212. 

Tait  labyrinth,  191. 

Tapping  board,  172. 

Tapping  test,  172/ 

Terman,  L.  M.,  169. 

Texts  for  study  of  eye-move- 
ments in  reading,  198/ 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  40,  50,  82,  83, 
93,  94,  131,  186. 

Thorndike  scale,  83. 

Town,  Clara  H.,  169. 

Transfer  for  training,  41  /. 

Trial  frames,  143. 

Trial  lenses,  143. 

Vision  test  cards,  143. 

Waldo,  K.  D.,  131. 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.,  7. 

Watt,  H.  J.,  71. 

Weis  A.  P.   90. 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  8,  63,  114,  115, 

116,  120,  151,  161,  169.  171, 

180,  186. 

Yerkes,  R.  M..  169. 


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